Peshawar
‘Mahabat Khan mosque is the true Peshawaris' favourite sight.’ This sentence has been taken from "The way of Pathans”. Describe the life picture of Peshawar as narrated by J. Spain.
J. Spain visited Peshawar in connection with some official business. He walked about the city and watched its different aspects. In the central square of the city, he saw with a crowd a "hakim" making a practical demonstration of his medicines. The hakim got himself stung by a cobra snake on his wrist where he had rubbed some ointment. In this way he tried to convince his audience that his medicine could protect them from any harm. One man in the crowd told the writer about his misgivings, suggesting that the hakeem had somehow tricked people but he expected that some day the hakim would make a mistake which would cause him trouble and that would be well worth seeing.
Later the writer visited some of the old inns in Peshawar where once caravans from Central Asian states and Afghanistan brought their goods for sale in the city's market. There he saw the worn-out skin of a white snow-leopard. This convinced him of the former glory of the city. According to the writer Peshawar is a city of romance with a rich Pathan flavour. He believes that everything about the city reminds the travellers of this and one is sure to find a hint of its former glory almost everywhere. Some places, like Mahabat Khan Mosque, are centuries old. These buildings give one the impression of calm and quiet and through them one looks back at the past. The writer climbed one of the minarets of the mosque to have a look on the city. He remembered how the Sikhs, when they reigned here, hanged the Muslims from the minarets of this mosque. He felt sure that for all its glory such a death was very difficult for those who were hanged from the minarets.
With their rush of business and variety of goods, the business streets of Peshawar represent another very important aspect of its life. There are dozens of these business streets, each of which deals in some particular trade or other. The writer wandered about in the Shoe-Bazaar and the Street of Hardware merchants. He was apparently much impressed with the variety of goods offered for sale. He describes his funny experience at a shop where he saw a very large knife and thought it was meant for cutting crop. The shopkeeper corrected him by making a gesture which showed that it was rather used for cutting throats. In fact, the city is famous for quite a large number of products like shoes, caps, carpets and hardware goods. Yet these are just a few of the novelty things of which the quality is as much impressive as the variety. The writer noticed that the prices were very low in comparison.
The writer says that tea stalls are one of the most common features of the city. These are scattered in every business street. They cater for a variety of tastes. However, the most popular drink of all seems to be 'qahwah'. It is prepared with great care which reflects the excellent taste of the Peshawari people.
The Peshawar Cantonment is modern in its style. The broad streets with their English names remind of the Victorian England. The Mall with its green lawns also lends a special charm to it. The large bungalows with their local history and the comfortable hotels also add to its beauty. The cantonment has its own Bazaar which is known as "Saddar". Though it was designed after the West, it has now acquired the charm of East.
The Peshawar cantonment presents a lovely fusion of tradition and change. There is a museum down the railway station which fosters an impression of calm and serenity. The statues that stand in the museum take us two thousand years back in time. In Peshawar Club, one has the same feelings. The pictures on its walls, though not much old, have transformed into a living tradition. Both the cantonment and city seem to carry hundreds of years on their shoulders. Its buildings are modern in style, no doubt; yet it is a city centuries old.
The university itself has been built on a site thousands of years old. Once there was located an ancient Buddhist university which the ravages of time had changed into a desert. In 1951, when the writer visited it for the first time, it was a single building and was known as Islamia College. He had come to find out what kind of help the Fullbright Foundation could offer for it at some later date. For this purpose he met Khan Abdul Qayyum Khan, the then Chancellor of the University, who told him about the plans and future requirements of the University. When the writer later visited the university again, he was surprised to see how rapidly it expanded. Now it came to be reckoned among the best in the world and is the unique achievement of this province over the last two thousand years.
Mahabat Khan Mosque
The Mahabat Khan Mosque is a beautiful building and everyone in Peshawar seems to love it. People from all over the country come to see it and say their prayers here. The atmosphere is that of great calm and peace. Its vast court is made of tiles. People are bowing on rich red carpets which lie on its floor. In the middle, there is a pool of cool and clear water. The minarets of the mosque shine brightly in the sunlight. Climbing up into one of them, a visitor can have a panoramic view of the whole city around.
The mosque has stood there for centuries. It recalls to mind the old times when Sikhs ruled over N-W.F.P. Those were really hard times for the Muslims as two of them were then hanged every day from the minarets of this mosque. That time is over now, while the mosque still stands as a memorial to those valiant Muslims who gave their lives for the glory of their faith.
Tea Stalls
Pathans are very fond of Qahwah and other varieties of tea. Tea stalls are, therefore, a common feature of the city. The business streets of Peshawar specialise in different trades. Yet tea stalls can be seen almost everywhere. These are about six feet wide and six feet deep with a narrow passage opening to the street. Usually there is the same kind of equipment which includes a brass samovar, and china cups and teapots. The owner sits near the fireplace with a warm and pleasant smile on his face.
The tea stalls cater for a variety of tastes; some of them specialise in black tea; others, in Kashmiri tea. Most of the tea-stalls, however, serve "qahwah" which is a national drink of Pathans. The care taken in its preparation reflects on the refined taste of Peshawaris.
Peshawar Museum
The Peshawar Museum is situated at some distance from the Cantonment railway station. The statues that stand in its dark corners look like ghosts. Still they seem to be kind and polite while their originals were very harsh and fierce people. Tourists rarely visit this place. In fact, the museum offers very little that could be worth seeing. Yet it gives an insight into the culture of this part of the country. One can see old coins of petty Greek rulers who ruled over this province soon after the death of Alexander the Great. There are some remains of old dresses and pots and some books of old origin and that seem all. Anyhow, the museum is a favourite place. Particularly school boys love playing about the wooden horses in the museum which are the funeral effigies of the Kafirs of. Chitral.
Indus in Fetters "Today I corkscrewed down the Kohat side of the mountains to see the Indus in his Fetters." Narrate the passage from Kohat Pass to the Attock Bridge and what Toynbee saw there.
Toynbee visited the Kohat Pass and he describes it with great excitement. He recalls how he could not afford to stay here last time. In fact he had to reach Beirut and therefore could not enjoy watching the view from here. But now he had plenty of time and so he decided to visit the bridge across the Indus River at Khushalgarah. Standing on the summit he looked down over the green cantonment of Kohat which was green and beautiful. The writer tells us how the passage that leads down to it from the Kohat Pass is extremely dangerous. He compares it to the road round Sorrento Peninsula in Naples. The mountains seem to run down in huge steps and the road turns round them steeply. One is bound to feel frightened as he drives on this road. One slip could be fatal. The writer describes the passage leading down to the Bridge near Khushalgarh as even far more terrifying. It seems as if the road is surrounded by the huge waves. The Indus itself looks like a stream surrounded by the waves of a huge ocean.
On reaching Attock, the Indus enters mountains. Its waters then flow through a narrow and rocky path from Attock to Kalabagh. The writer refers to these two places as fetters of the Indus River because its path through the rocks is like a prison where its waters are kept confined. The waves seem to be in hurry to reach their exit at Kalabagh where they are set free again. From Kalabagh onwards, the river flows at a slow pace down all the length of Sind.
The writer spent a whole day at Attock watching the view from the bridge. He noticed a man pushing a batch of his sheep into the inlet between two rocks. The sheep looked frightened as they fell down into the inlet. At first, the writer felt surprised. He could not understand why the man was treating the sheep so harshly. He wondered whether he had become mad or he was possessed by some evil spirit. He recalled an incident from the Bible which tells how the Christ took out the evil spirit from the body of a man and put it into the swine. The writer wondered whether this man was a reincarnation of the same evil spirit. However, the sheep started swimming soon and then he realised that the man was only a shepherd who was giving a bath to his sheep. The sheep did not drown. They rather quietly began to climb up to the other side of the shore. The writer felt sure that if these were an English breed, they would have died of panic.
This incident strengthened his belief that eastern breed is definitely superior. Now he realised why the Pathan poet Khushal Khan Khattak had used the term "sheep-like" for describing the valour of his tribesmen. In fact the eastern sheep are beautiful and courageous. The writer enjoyed watching the waves all day.
A Tell like Jericho "If you imagine a blend between Lombardy and the Ghuttah of Damascus you can conjure up Gandhara in your mind." Narrate what Toynbee has said about Charsadda Mounds, Shabqadar Fort and the Buddhist monastery.
Charsadda remained the capital of Gandahra till the Kushan emperors transferred the seat of their government to Peshawar. For centuries it played a very important role in the overland route between India and the rest of the old world. This fact is revealed by the two mounds at Charsadda. They represent the history of three thousand years. The offices and royal palaces were built on these mounds. Every time Charsadda was invaded by a foreign nation, these buildings were destroyed. The mound grew higher with each new conquest. The construction on these mounds stopped after the attack by Huns in the 5th century A.D. The seat of government was then transferred to Peshawar by the Kushans. The mounds have been desolate since then. The writer says that the bigger mound resembles the "Tell at Jericho" in its height.
Charsadda can be viewed as a blend between the two civilisations - Ghuttah and Lombardy. Yet one of its aspects is quite unique. It is the delightful view of its rivers when they flow out of mountains into the plains. Through the rocky path, the rivers flow at a very slow pace. But on reaching the exit, they flow out at tremendous speed. At these places the volume of their waters is also very great.
The Fort at Shabqadar is situated on a hill. It was originally built by the Sikhs. But it was later captured by the British. Presently it is the headquarters of the Pakistan Frontier Corps. The fort narrates the story of a long occupation by men. The remains of the Sikh and British occupation reveal how futile human efforts are. The Sikhs and the British conquered and occupied it in turn, but now they have gone; only their monuments are left behind. The fort, however, still stands to remind of the futility of human efforts.
Takhtbhai is the site of an ancient civilisation. Yet, it narrates a different story. On the top of this hill, the ruins of a Buddhist monastery are still present. Here the monks led a severe and pious life to escape the cycle of re-birth. The monks succeeded in their efforts and were eventually freed from the grip of Karma. The ruins of their monastery depict a serenity that is quite impressive in itself. It proves that at least all human efforts and achievements are not futile. It reminds us that time can destroy only material achieve-ments while the spiritual attainments last for ever.
Comprehension Questions
A Tell like Jericho
“Some fifteen hundred years have passed since the mound at Charsadda ceased to grow.” (Page 16 - line 6) ....... But up there, on the mountain, all is still. (Page 17 - line 14)
Questions with answers
1. "Sikhs and British have come and gone and the monuments of their fleeting occupation testify to transitoriness of human achievements.” Explain.
The Shabqadar Fort reminds us how futile and useless human efforts are. Initially, the fort was built and occupied by the Sikhs. Later on it was captured by the English, who built the upper storey. However their possession did not last for long. The fort is still there, while their occupation ceased long ago. In the same way, all material achievements of human beings are soon destroyed by time.
2. What is the difference between the mound at Charsadda and the Fort of Shabqadar?
The Charsadda mound contains ancient deposits of the fifth century A.C. and before. The height of this mound, as such, represents a continuous history of human occupation extending over two thousand years. It rose a few feet every time Charsadda was attacked and its buildings were destroyed. The mound does not contain any deposits of later than 5th century. The Shabqadar Fort, however, was built much later and, therefore, it contains deposits of later than 5th century.
3. Why has the monument at Takht Bhai conquered time and endured while the monuments of the Sikhs and the British have not?
The monument at Takht Bhai reflects the struggle of Buddhist monks who had renounced the material world. They lived in the monastery aiming at spiritual purification. That is why the monastery seems to have conquered time. The British and Sikhs, on the other hand, failed in their pursuits as both of them struggled for only material gains.
4. Give an account of the ideals and the way of life of the Buddhist monks.
The monks believed that man's desires are the main cause for his sufferings. According to their belief, man is born here again and again as a punishment for his lust. Therefore, the monks renounced all desires to be released from this evil cycle of re-birth.
5. What is "Karma"? Why is the plain of Shahre Bahlool fast bound in the grip of Karma?
Karma is a Buddhist concept of punishment. The Buddhists believe that man suffers for his desires. To be released from the grip of Karma, he must renounce all desires. Till then, he is born again and again. The plain of Shahr-e-Bahlool, is ever changing because it is still fast bound in the grip of Karma or Time.
Two Wheels over Nine Glaciers "For a combination of beauty, danger and hardships (of enjoyable variety) today wins at a canter." This line has been taken from Dervla Merphy's Book "Full Tilt". Describe her Journey through the Kaghan mountains from Babusar to Abbottabad.
The writer wanted to reach Kaghan on her way to Abbottabad. She was riding a bicycle and was alone. The journey through the hills was both exciting and pleasant but it was also risky and tiresome. All the day long, she faced great hardship and peril on her way to Abbotabad. Surely it needed a lot of courage to pass in front of the glaciers particularly when she did not know when they would start sliding. At one place, she had to climb a steep mountain to avoid a large glacier lying across her path. After a hard and tedious climb, she found herself on Babusar Top. Her surprise was really great as she could not imagine anyone ever going up to Babusar Top with a bicycle.
The journey down the mountain seemed very pleasant and delightful at first. She saw a beautiful valley below and the passage, too, seemed to be very comfortable. But soon she began to face problems. No doubt she had to cross several glaciers on the way but she faced the first real crisis when she reached down to the valley. In order to reach her destination, she needed to cross the river Kaghan. But the bridge had been swept away by the flood. It meant that she must ford the river but she had no idea at where the water was shallow to go through it. She knew that a pony caravan had gone the same way a few hours ago. Therefore, she started looking for their footprints. But the ground was stony and even very careful search could not yield any clue. It was a real stroke of good luck that she noticed a cow coming towards the stream. She decided she must ford the river with the cow's help. So she held her bicycle with one hand and put the other hand around the cow's neck. In this way, she managed to cross to the other side.
On the other side of the river she had to climb up the mountains once again. She was passing through some really beautiful scenery. The mountains were white with snow and the meadows were covered with beautiful flowers. After having travelled for another seven miles, she again faced a very difficult situation. A river lay across her path but it had no bridge. Moreover the river flowed in rocks about twenty feet below the road-level and it was impossible to ford it this time. Then the path, too, was blocked by a steep mountain. She had no choice but to drag the bicycle up the mountain with her.
On reaching the top, she discovered to her horror that she stood at the steep edge of rocks. One step would have carried her down about 1500 feet below over sheer rocks. There was no passage leading down. She wondered how the pony caravan had managed to reach down whom she could see standing beside the river below. However, she soon realised that they had used a huge glacier for this purpose. She shouted to the men below to attract their attention. Then, pushing her bicycle over the slope, she also pushed herself down the glacier. In a little while she reached down, almost breathless and slightly injured, yet without any effort on her part.
The pony caravan was facing a problem. The glacier lying across the river had melted at several places. The men had placed wooden boards across these chunks. Actually they wanted to use the part of glacier over the river as a natural bridge. However, their ponies seemed frightened and refused to walk over the boards. The men cursed and kicked them in vain. The situation seemed quite dangerous to her; yet she remained behind to help them. Then she had a brilliant idea which she conveyed to them in sign language. She told them they should cross to the other side of the hill leaving the ponies behind. In this way the ponies finding themselves alone might cross the river of their own accord. The suggestion was accepted and acted upon which proved very effective. No sooner had they turned to the other side, than the ponies joined them.
Comprehension Questions
Two Wheels over Nine Glaciers
"At this point I stopped to consider what I should do.” (Page 19 - line 27) ....... "I slowly assimilated the unlikely fact that we were on the Babusar Top." (Page 21)
Questions with answers 1. What does the writer refer to by the idiosyncrasies of the glaciers?
The writer is actually pointing out that she could not judge from the condition of a glacier whether or not it was at the point of sliding further. As such she was in no position to decide whether it was safe to walk in front of the glacier or not.
2. What was the weather like and what was its effect on the writer?
The weather was very cold. A sharp wind was blowing and snow-flakes flew all around her. However the writer enjoyed the cold and keen weather and walked bare-headed.
3. What did the writer feel on high altitudes?
The writer felt out of breath every now and then. Her heart was beating very fast and she felt almost certain that she was about to die. However she soon realised that it was an illusory feeling, mainly caused by the fact that she had no previous experience of climbing to such heights.
4. What did she say about the snow?
The snow was extremely soft at some places but extremely hard at others. Sometimes, she sank into it up to the knees. But sometimes she found it difficult even to keep upright while climbing up the mountain. As such it was causing her much trouble and she felt extremely tired by the time she reached up.
5. What is a trail? What are the features of the trail the writer is travelling along? Where does it lead?
A trail is a series of various signs like footprints etc. left behind when someone has gone ahead on the path. One can find out with its help which way the person has gone. In the present situation we are told that she was following the trails of a pony caravan. The trails led her to the Babusar Top. Apparently the pony caravan had little understanding as their trails had crossed many outcrops of rocks. As a result, she had to face several problems in following their trail.
Pipal Pani Tiger "Beyond the fact that he was born in a ravine running deep into the foot hills and was one of a family of three, I know nothing.". This sentence has been taken from ‘Man Eaters of Kumaon’. Narrate the story of the Pipal Pani Tiger.
The tiger was a cub when Jim Corbett saw its foot marks in the sand. Two months later, he had the opportunity to see it for the first time. He was attracted to the spot by a crow. On reaching close, the writer noticed blood on the ground. He came to the conclusion that a deer was killed there last night. Some men had cut and carried away the remains. Nothing was left of the kill. Yet the writer felt convinced that the animal did not know about it and as such would return in due course. He waited over the kill. After some time, he saw the cub appearing from behind the bushes. It was approaching its kill carelessly in broad day-light. The writer had expected to see a grown-up tiger. He had no intention to kill it; at the same time he did not want it to be killed through lack of care on its own part. So, he tried to frighten it by firing a shot in the air. In this way, he tried to warn the cub against approaching its kills so carelessly in broad day-light.
In the following winter, Corbett saw the tiger many times. It had grown in size now and lived in the thick bushes near the foot-hills. Next winter, it found a mate for itself. The writer was led to its kill by a vulture. As he reached close, the writer saw the tiger and the tigress lying on either side of the kill. He was trying to take aim when both the tigers grew alert by a sudden noise and ran away into the thick jungle. Later he found that the tigress had left her mate and now the tiger had resumed its bachelor life.
A year later, the tiger hunted its first full grown buffalo. Jim was directed to the scene of tragedy by its loud roar. He saw the buffalo lying dead on the floor of the ravine but the tiger had gone away without eating it. He waited for it in vain. Being seriously wounded in the struggle, the tiger never returned to its kill. Three years later, the tiger was hit by a bullet and its shoulder was fractured. It passed through the village and occupied a vacant godown but later alarmed by the large crowds of people, it took shelter in the bushes.
The tiger's wound healed soon but for some time it could not hunt large animals. So it did great damage to the village cattle. Now it took only one meal of each. As such, it was killing five times more. In the next few years it grew both in height and reputation and many attempts were made to kill it.
One evening, a villager set out for killing a pig. The tiger passed in front of him. In the darkness, he mistook it for a pig and shot at it with his old-fashioned gun. The animal passed the man and entered the bushes. The man rushed to his hut where other villagers gathered and they decided to search for the pig. Due to a minor accident, the search was delayed for some time which saved their lives. When they arrived at the spot, the tiger had left. The search was resumed next morning. One of the men collected some blood-stained hairs and brought these to Corbitt. From these hairs and from the footprints in the jungle, he guessed that it was the Pipal Pani tiger and that its foreleg had been broken by the shot.
The tiger had not hurt anyone on the two previous occasions. However, it was feared that being old and weak, it might prove dangerous now and might turn man-eater. Corbett was to leave within a few days. He, therefore, decided to make a search for the tiger in the jungle and to kill it. The search did not yield any clues for three days. The next afternoon he met a woman and her son coming out of the forest. They had heard the tiger roaring near the foot-hills. As the boy insisted on showing him the place, Corbitt let him go along. On reaching there, he made the boy sit in a tree with the instructions to warn him quietly if he saw the tiger first. The writer, then, imitated the call of a tigress in search of a mate. The call was answered an hour later and soon the tiger appeared from behind the bushes. It walked straight along the path. On reaching near, it suddenly turned towards the writer. He did not expect it and so was puzzled for a while. However, he used an old trick which made the tiger stop short and raise its head. In this way, the tiger exposed its chest. The writer took aim and fired a bullet into its chest. The tiger was seriously wounded and tried to flee into the forest but fell dead within a few yards.
The Idea of Pakistan What does Ian Smith have to say about the West's antagonism for Islam in general and against Pakistan in particular?
Pakistan is an extraordinary country. Both from military and political points of view its importance can not be overlooked. And yet Western countries do not give due importance to Pakistan. Their attitude towards Pakistan is hostile and they often remain indifferent to her problems. They take no notice of threats to her independence. This indifferent attitude on the part of West seems quite strange and needs examination.
There may be many causes responsible for it, but religious antagonism seems to be the strongest factor involved. In the first place, the Pakistan concept came as a blow to the British. They had assumed that India was one nation. The new concept ran counter to their thinking and was, therefor, quite unpleasant to them. The division of Army was particularly distasteful in view of the prestige that it had recently achieved in the Second World War. The Indian army had great potentials for bringing peace in any part of the world. But now that the country was to be divided, the army too would be disintegrated and lose all its prestige. Obviously both military and civil officers were not happy with this prospect.
Their hostile attitude was further strengthened by another factor. Pakistan consisted of two parts which were a thousand miles apart. There were cultural and economic differences. It seemed almost certain to them that the two parts of Pakistan would not stay together for long. In case of any civil war between the two parts, the Europeans, who were already weary of wars, would have to settle the dispute. All this created dis-taste against the very idea of Pakistan long before it really emerged on the map of the world.
The situation grew worse for Pakistan even after its emergence. Firstly, the reasons for the creation of a new country in India were not properly understood. The West assumed there was no justification for the demand. Those who knew the facts remained silent for different reasons. Some of them felt frustrated as they had always assumed Indians to constitute one nation. But the partition and its resulting riots shook their beliefs and apparently gave the impression that their life-long work was destroyed. Others were bound by rules and could not disclose their knowledge without risking their future positions in government.To some it was unwise to create troubles for the new successor governments by unwanted comments from abroad now that they had ceased to rule. The British Government itself wanted to save British investments in India. It was feared that any interference on their part might displease the Indian Government and as such do harm to their national interests. The other countries, too, did not want to alienate India to avoid risking commercial and cultural interests which they could now avail after the British had left. These were some of the reasons for the strange behaviour on the part of West.
The writer, however, thinks that the attitude of ordinary Europeans and Americans is not explained by these reasons. He believes that there must be some other reason for their antagonism against Pakistan. In fact, the Europeans are made prejudiced against Islam from their early schooling. Any sign of Islamic civilisation in Europe reminds them of their defeat in the Crusades and the conquests of Islam. They regard Muslims, though unjustly, as barbarian and ruthless invaders. Then their bias makes them forget that Islam played a decisive role in evolving the modern Europe.
In the resulting prejudice, the Europeans forget the broad differences between Islam and Hinduism. They assume that the creation of Pakistan was unnecessary and was resulted by prejudice on the part of Muslims. This makes them believe in the face of undeniable facts that Pakistan is a theocratic state and that it aims at new conquests for Islam.
It is mostly for these reasons that the Western countries experience antagonism against Pakistan.
2. How does Ian Stephen justify his claim that Pakistan though an ideological country is not a theocratic but a modernist state?
Pakistan has associated itself with the name of Islam in an unusual way. The fact has given rise to suspicions in European mind. They assume that she is a theocratic society based on prejudice and bigotry. However, the writer is of the view that Pakistan is definitely a liberal and modernist society. The outward style of life is liberal; theologian does not enjoy any power; people from the West are warmly received; and Christian missionaries experience no difficulties at all. In fact there seems no indication of her ever becoming a theocratic state. Islam, too, is not a dogmatic religion and as such it is not right to assume that Pakistan could become a narrow-minded society.
The writer further justifies his stand by giving evidence in its support. Firstly, the very background of Pakistan movement suggests that Pakistan is not a theocratic state. Its leadership came from men like Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Allama Iqbal and Syed Ameer Ali. None of them was a theologian. The Quaid-e-Azam, who made Pakistan a reality, was also liberal and modernist in his thinking. Personally, Quaid-e-Azam believed in secular government. It was only because of the clear threat to the Muslims' political, economic and cultural life that he demanded an independent country for them. He had known the character of Hindu mind over the years and felt convinced that Muslims would ever remain a political minority in an undivided India. He feared that the social and cultural life of Muslims would also be completely ruined if they were not freed from the domination of the Hindu majority.
Even after the creation of Pakistan, its leadership remained modernist. People like Liaquat Ali Khan and Field Marshal Ayub Khan were realists. They tried hard to keep the religion separate from politics. The general structure of society is also liberal and modern. The situation needs to be viewed in its proper setting. Though Pakistan has associated itself with "Islam" in a peculiar manner, yet it needs to be viewed in a quite different context. India does not seem to have accepted Pakistan’s independent status wholeheartedly. Pakistan fears that its freedom is in jeopardy. This is the major reason for its somewhat strict adherence to Islam. Once this fact is realised, Pakistan’s strange behaviour is easily explained.
Comprehension Questions
The Idea of Pakistan
"Pakistan is an independent sovereign country in South Asia ...” (Page 49) .... "..which war-weary westerners would presumably have to try to tide up." (Page 51)
Questions with answers
1 Why did the Hindus despite their huge majority in India fear the Muslims?
The Muslims had defeated the Hindus in the distant past despite being much less in number. They had also ruled over vast parts of India for a long time. The Hindus naturally feared that Muslims would try to subdue them again.
2. Why did the British governing circles dislike the idea of Pakistan?
The Pakistan concept aimed at partition of India. The army, too, was to be divided. Then, the British had wrongly assumed that India was one nation. It was this idea which was challenged. Naturally, the British ruling class disliked it.
3. Why did the British dislike the prospect of the administrative unity of the Indian continent being wrenched apart?
The British governing circles felt that they and their predecessors had been through very hard times to unite India into one country. The partition would result in undoing all this work. Moreover it woulld split the Indian Army, too, which had earned itself a good reputation in the World War II. The split would destroy its ability to maintain peace and stability in Asia.
4. How, according to the writer, is Pakistan an extra-ordinary country?
Most of the countries in the world have been created on grounds of history, politics and geography. Pakistan stands unique among them because it is the only state that has been created to fulfil a religious and cultural aspiration and owes its existence to ideology.
5. What were the causes of communal riots in India during 1947?
Hindus wanted to take revenge for their past defeats. They tried to dominate, destroy or at the least expel the Islamic culture. The Indian Muslims resisted against it and demanded a separate country. These two were the main factors resulting in communal riots.
6. Why were the Western countries sceptical about the survival of Pakistan?
Pakistan consisted of two parts, which were over a thousand miles apart from each other. There were also cultural and economic differences between the two parts. These facts made Europeans fear that the two wings of Pakistan wouldn't stay together for long. As such, they were sceptical about its survival.
7. How did Hindus wish to avenge the series of humiliating defeats inflicted on them by the Muslim conquerors?
The Hindus felt ashamed of the series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the Muslims and wished to take revenge for it by dominating them. They were quite determined to destroy or at least expel the Islamic culture from India. If it was not possible then they would want the Muslims to be practically slaves to the Hindus.
8. What does the writer refer to when he states: “Well, that is no use crying over spilt milk?
The phrase suggests the frustration of the British officials on partition of India. It means that they disliked the emergence of Pakistan as a separte state. However, they thought that nothing could be done about it now and so they had to accept the unpleasant outcome.
Comprehension Questions
The Idea of Pakistan
"And perhaps some Muslim there, observing his predicament, might politely press.” (Page 59)..."un-Islamic practices such as worships at the tomb of saints."(Page 60)
Questions with answers
9. Write a brief paragraph on the relations between Hindus and Muslims in India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The writer claims that over long periods the two people i.e., the Muslims and Hindus lived peacefully. Particularly during the 16th and 17th centuries, the two cultures co-operated with each other or at least did not have recourse to bloody conflicts. In fact, the Mughal rulers tried to unify them somehow for the sake of the political stability of their empire and their efforts were not lost altogether.
10. What was Islam's influence on Hinduism?
According to the writer, Hinduism evolved a new religion in Sikhism. This religion has many similarities with Islam. For example it believes in monotheism, does not worship idols and is based on equality of men. In all these respects, it is different from Hinduism. He thinks that Sikhism emerged as an influence of Islam.
11. How did Hinduism influence Islam?
According to the writer, it was under the influence of Hinduism that Islam allowed un-Islamic practices in India such as worship at the tombs of saints. Moreover the relation between man and God was based on love through the mystical devotions of Sufis. The Mughal architecture also blent Hindu styles of construction with traditional Islamic ones while some of the Mughal rulers married Hindu princesses and took deep interest in Hindu philosophy, poetry and art.
12. What are the possible reasons for the Christian West's hostility to Islam and Muslims?
The writer has pointed out how the Europeans are totally unaware of simple Asian realities. It seems obvious to him that reasons for this unusual attitude is that the Christian West feels prejudiced against Islam. It seems that the West finds it difficult to forget their humiliating defeats at the hands of Muslims several centuries ago. Perhaps they remember with shame how the Muslim conquered Spain and reached even beyond Poitiers. The Muslim conquerors managed to penetrate deep in Europe and were only 200 miles behind from the English Channel. It is feeling of shame that causes hostility towards Islam and the Muslims.
13. Write a few sentences on Akbar as a patriot and nation-builder.
Akbar was a great ruler and he wanted to unite his subjects into one nation. He knew very well that India could not become a great nation as long as there was division among the people. It was with this motive that he tried to unify them under religion of his own devising. The attempt was however utterly a failure because he did not realise that religion is a very sensitive issue and that it takes centuries for a religion to take roots.
Comprehension questions
The Idea of Pakistan
"The amount of dogma in Islam is in fact relatively short: much less than in Christianity…..” (Page 62) "... which so baffles many occidental observers." (Page 64)
Questions with answers
14. What is a theocracy? Do you think Pakistan is a theocratic state?
The writer uses this term to refer to a state based on narrow-minded religious attitudes. The fact is that in Pakistan all citizens enjoy almost equal rights and there is complete religious freedom. As such Pakistan cannot be regarded a theocracy.
15. Describe Ataturk's social reforms?
Ataturk prohibited theologians from taking part in politics. He banned Turkish caps for men and veil for women. He abolished the Caliphate and replaced the Arabic script of Turkish with the Roman one. In fact, he introduced a number of reforms which changed Turkey into a secular state of the Western type.
16. Is the Pakistani society really an intolerant and reactionary society?
Ian Stephen rightly believes that our society is split into two classes. The upper middle class is western in thinking but the masses are religious-minded. Yet, the majority of the people usually tolerate religious differences and, on the whole, Pakistan can not be regarded an intolerant or reactionary society.
17. What does he say about religious views and outlook of the leaders of Muslim revival in Asia?
According to him, majority of the leaders in the Muslim revivalist movement were modernist in out-look. They were not orthodox in any sense of the term. All these leaders were reformers and they worked actively to bring changes in the social and political life of the Indian Muslims.
18. How did most of the theologians react to the demand for Pakistan?
Ian Stephen claims that most of the theologians opposed the demand for Pakistan. They believed in all sincerity that the demand for Pakistan was against the teaching of Islam. In fact, in their opinion the Pakistan concept ran counter to the Islamic thinking since it aimed at dividing Muslim community into separate nations on the basis of geography and politics.
The Holy Prophet "A nature so pure, so tender, and yet so heroic, inspires not only reverence but love." This sentence is about the Holy Prophet (peace and blessing of God be upon him!). Write an essay on the character of the Prophet of Islam.
Many sages and prophets had come before the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him). All these philosophers and reformers had tried really hard to improve human life but they failed to realise their dreams. It was the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) who accomplished this ideal. He alone succeeded in accomplishing theirs as well as his own mission. The success achieved by him was a reward from God for his devotion, sincerity and humility of spirit.
Still his achievements are singular in the history of mankind. The Prophet (peace be upon him) wrought by the sheer force of his character what monarch and kings could not achieve despite their unquestioned authority. Born among an ignorant people far away from the stream of civilisation, he suffered insults, torture and outrages, but eventually elevated them to sublime ideals. Those who had worshipped man-made idols all their life were inspired with a firm faith in the unity of God. Arabs, who were divided into tribes and remained in state of war with one another, were united into a strong nation within years. Arabia, which was culturally a desert, was, within a short period, turned into a centre of civilisation.
All this was done at a time when mankind had fallen to the abysmal degradation. The very followers of Christ had started worshipping an incarnate God although Christ had always preached divine unity. Like the pagans, the Christians had begun to worship Mary as a goddess. Human soul was crushed under the tyranny of priests and such dogmatic beliefs which were unintelligible as well as a mockery of human intellect. The human body, on the other hand, was subjected to the tyranny of kings and rulers.
At such a time, the Prophet (peace be upon him) taught humanity the values and habits of mind which elevated man to his proper station in life. He negated the mediation of priest between man and God. He taught the value of learning to the masses. He reminded them of the ethical faculty in mankind and emphasised the importance of reason. The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) gave a democratic conception of the divine government. All power belongs to the God but it is the man himself, and not the self-made priests, who is the viceregent of God in this universe. The faith that he preached was not restricted to a certain people, like the Jewish religion, nor confined to a certain territory. His was the religion for all the people, for all times, and for all the places.
His achievements and his life will ever remain singular.The Holy Prophet's nobility of character is remarkable. His simple habits, piety, and refinement of thinking impressed even his worst enemies. The Holy Prophet never spoke rudely even to his slaves.He never told a lie all his life. He never wronged anyone, nor did he take revenge from those who had wronged him. He always listened patiently to the poor and needy. Even during times of scarcity he would share his humble meal with those who had nothing to eat. He would do all his work himself, milking the goats, mending his own clothes and waiting upon himself in each and every thing.
In fact, not only his achievements but his style of living and noble habits of mind also relate a completely different tradition from that of other philosphers and sages who came before him. That’s why those who described him would invariably say they had not seen the like of him either before or after.
2. "Your lives and property are sacred and inviolable among one another until you appear before the Lord as this day and this month is sacred for all." Narrate the preaching of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) in the light of this sermon.
The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) addressed his followers at the time of his last pilgrimage. This sermon was an essence of his teachings. He declared human life as sacred. The Muslims were asked to show respect for each other’s rights. He told them that the life and property of every Muslim is as sacred as the place of pilgrimage. Man is accountable for his action before the Lord. On the judgement day, he would be rewarded for his goodness and punished for his evil deeds. The prophet reminded them that they must treat their wives with kindness and affection. Marriage is a sacred bond, allowed and guaranteed by God. Men have rights over their wives but they also owe duties toward their wives. Usury is prohibited and the debtor has the right to only the amount he has lent. Similarly no one is allowed to take another’s life unjustly. As such blood feud which was practiced during paganism is abolished.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) taught humanity the values and habits of mind which elevated man to his proper station in life. He negated the mediation of priest between man and God. He taught the value of learning to the masses. He reminded them of the ethical faculty in mankind and emphasised the importance of reason. The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) gave a democratic conception of the divine government. All power belongs to the God but it is the man himself, and not the self-made priests, who is the viceregent of God in this universe. The faith that he preached was not restricted to a certain people, like the Jewish religion, nor confined to a certain territory. His is the religion for the people of all times, of all the places.
He preached that man can not exist without constant efforts. He declared that efforts are from men; their fulfilment comes from God. To seek knowledge is the duty of every man and woman. He emphasised the value of learning. The world is a well ordered creation guided by the Almighty. He preached that family is a sacred institution and the children, a trust from God. They are to be brought up with love and tenderness. The parents are to be respected and loved Man can earn merit and reward by fulfilling his responsibilities towards the society, not by avoiding it. The circle of these duties includes not only parents, children and relatives but also neighbours and the poor.
A cursory glance at his teachings can show that the Prophet (peace be upon him) is the prophet for all times and that his preaching reflects the modern spirit.
Comprehension Questions
The Holy Prophet
"His life is the noblest record of a work.” (Page 103) ..... ………. "No fairy tale has been woven round his personality." (Page 104)
Questions with answers
1. In what lies the distinctive superiority of Muhammad (PBUH) over other prophets, sages and philosophers?
There had been many sages, philosophers and prophets before Muhammad (peace be upon him) with their visions and ideas for reforming human beings. None of them succeeded in his amibition and had to leave their mission unaccomplished. It was the sole distinction of the Holy Prophet that he accomplished his mission during his life time and entirely on his own.
2. What did Muhammad (PBUH) do for the Arabs whom the writer calls “the dormant people”?
The Holy Prophet united the Arabs into one nation and lifted them out of the spritual and moral abyss in which they were living for centuries. He also inspired them to action by giving them the hope of eternal life.
3. Why does the writer call the work of Muhammad (PBUH) as the work of God?
Others had tried before him to lift the humanity out of its moral and spiritual degradation. These included sages, philosophers and prophets. However they all failed in their ambitons. They departed from the world without realizing their dreams. In some cases their followers tried to impose their teaching through royal edicts or by shedding blood. The Holy Prophet had the distinction of accomplishing his mission during his life time and through his own peaceful efforts. That is why the writer call it the work and the will of God.
4. "The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) concentrated into focus all the fragmentary and broken lights ever fallen on the hearts of men". Explain.
Many prophets and sages had come before with divine wisdom. Their teachings existed in a mutilated shape, or were completely forgotten and lost. The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) taught humanity the word of God once again with the wisdom of the past ages summed up in a whole.
5. How had the followers of Jesus corrupted the doctrine of the unity of God?
The Christ had preached the unity of God. He had clearly declared that he was a Prophet and servant of God. But some time later his original teachings were forgotten and Christians began to adore him as the only begotten son of God. They worshipped him as a partner in God-head. All this was against the teaching of Jesus and a corruption of his message.
6. What did the Prophet (peace be upon him) do to free the body and soul of man?
The Prophet (peace be upon him) declared that all men were equal and that there was no distinction on the basis of colour, race or social position. He freed human body from the tyranny of selfish people like kings and rulers. At the same time, he gave liberty to the human soul by declaring that there was no need for a priest to mediate between man and his Creator.
7. “The Holy Prophet abolished all exclusiveness in man's relation to his Creator?" Explain.
The former religions made it necessary for man to offer his prayers through the mediation of a priest. There existed no direct contact between man and God. He could not pray, repent or even worship but the priest mediated between him and God. The Prophet (peace be upon him) declared against that there was no need for the priests because every man and woman had a direct relation with his Creator.
8. Support the view that the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) is a living Prophet with a message for the modern world.
Islam believes in equality of all men. It encourages people to use their reason. It values learning and gives importance to knowledge. Islam encourages family life and believes in the sanctity of human life. It aims at reforming the masses and on improving their standard of living. All these things prove that the message of Islam is for all times including the modern age and that the Holy Prophet’s teachings are a living force.
Quaid-e-Azam Write about the salient features of Quaid-e-Azam's character as given in Aspahani’s essay entitled "Quaid-e-Azam as I knew him"
The Quaid-e-Azam was a tough task master and himself worked equally hard. He had no time to waste. Everything else had to wait for their turn except his work which he wanted to take care of as early as possible. During the last days of his life, this zeal for work reached to its extreme. Even on his death-bed, he was surrounded by a large number of files. He had refused to follow his doctor's advice to take rest. It was because of this hard work that we lost him at a time when the nation needed him all the more.
The Quaid had a reasonable and logical mind. He preferred an accurate and direct approach to each and every matter. That is why he had no time for a woolly-minded person. One had to be brief, clear in his mind as to what needed to be said on the matter, and to the point if one wished Jinnah to listen to him a second time. His decisions were always based on bare facts and showed a great power of judgement. Sentiments had no place in his life. Then he was a man of strong will and it was almost impossible to make him change his decisions. He would accommodate the opinion of others as far as possible. Where he did not agree with them, he would try to convince them by giving arguments in favour of his own opinion and did his best to win over even the obstinate. One thing was definte, however. He would not bend even slightly from his viewpoint. In fact, under no circumstances would he make any compromise on principles. That was one reason why he succeeded all alone against the best Hindu minds of his time.
Discipline played a very important role in Quaid’s life. He would ask the people even in public meetings to observe discipline. The magic of his personlity was so great that a couple of calls for discipline on the loud-speaker would convert bedlam into pin-drop silence. In fact, he believed that no nation can even survive, much less prosper, without discipline. That was one reason he gave unity, faith and discipline as a national emblem to the people of Pakistan.
Quaid-e-Azam trusted his companions and did not suspect them of selfishness or of selling the cause. If he had any doubts about the integrity of someone, he would become cautious. And once a man was proved to be unreliable, he never again entrusted him with party funds. However, he was generous in his interpretation of others. Even if something went wrong, he would not accuse them of betraying or underming the League. He would always say they made a judgement of error. In fact, he had a balanced personality and so he would not do anything rash either in the excitement of victory or bitterness of despair.
The Quaid was a man of few words and possessed the gift of immense understanding. He would reach to the heart of a problem within no time. Then, he could see into all its implications. The Quaid was the best lawyer and politician of his time for this rare gift. He did not like confusion and had not only the ability but always tried to convey his message clearly and briefly. Obviously Quaid-e-Azam was no master of languages; he did not claim any such thing. He could express himself best in English and though there may be some who would like to find fault with his English, the fact remains that he knew the art of expressing his thoughts in such a way that everyone understood what he said.
Like anybody else, he too had limitations but he knew them and never hesitated in admitting his inability to do something if he did not feel himself qualified for it. Similarly, he was a serious person with no time for frivolous activities, though he had a good sense of humour and enjoyed jokes at the right time.
Comprehension Questions
Quaid-e-Azam
"Quaid-e-Azam, as I stated earlier, possessed a strong will.”(Page 113)...."we and our children live as free people without fear of domination or persecution."(P 114)
Questions with answers
1. How did the Quaid-e-Azam behave towards those who held a view different from his?
The Quaid listened to and tried to accommodate the opinions of other people, as far as possible. In case, their standpoint did not fit in with his line of thinking, he would give arguments to convince them. He would do anything in his power to win over the obstinate except making a compromise on principles.
2. What was more important for the Quaid-e-Azam, the unity or principle?
He tried to seek and maintain unity as long as it was possible. But he did not compromise on principles, even at the cost of unity. Unity was very valuable to him but, when it clashed with a fundamental principle, he always preferred principles over anything else.
3. What is the origin and meaning of ‘Herculean task’?
A Herculean task is the one that is very difficult to do. This phrase is derived from the Greek mythology. Hercules was a very powerful man who had performed certain impossible tasks. That is how the term came to be used for something which needs immense strength.
4. Which quality did Quaid-e-Azam regard as most important for achieving success in life?
The Quaid believed that unity and discipline are the two most important qualities for achieving success. According to his belief, without unity and discipline, no country can even survive, much less prosper.
5. What did the Quaid mean when he said "Vote for a lamp-post if called upon by your party to do so?
The Quaid wanted his people to be disciplined. They should maintain unity and act on the advice their party gave them. They were required to vote for the party candidate even if he had a very thin chance of winning the election. It was just because of this discipline that Muslim League succeeded in winning freedom for the Muslims of India against all odds.
6. What has the writer to say on the Quaid-e-Azam’s charismatic personality?
The Quaid had such a magnetic personality that the people loved to see and hear him. Even in public meetings, a couple of calls would persuade the people to observe a pin-drop silence. He reigned over their hearts and souls. That is why the people observed complete discipline.
Comprehension Questions
Quaid-e-Azam
"The Quaid-e-Azam was no master of languages.”...." he would not hesitate to declare his inability.
Questions with answers
7. How does the write evaluate the linguistic abilities of the Quaid-e-Azam?
The writer suggests that the Quaid-e-Azam did not claim to be a competent scholar of any language. A fastidious person might find fault with his English. However, he was able to express his ideas clearly and in fewer words. In the writer’s opinion, this ability is more important than mastery over technical and grammatical aspects of a language.
8. What rare charismatic quality of the Quaid has been mentioned in the passage? Discuss in your own words.
The Quaid had a magnetic personality which made the people love him. They came to see and hear him in large numbers and observed complete silence in public meetings despite being emotionally excited. He reigned over their hearts and souls.
9. Why would the Quaid forbid his admirers to call him Amir-ul-Momenin?
The Quaid knew his limitations and did not feel any shame in admitting his inability for doing something for which he was not qualified. He knew very well that he was not a spiritual leader of the Muslims. That is why he forbade his admirers to call him Amir-ul-Momenin.
Flight into Karachi "Quaid was resolute and solitary......." This remark is quoted in "Jinnah, the Creator of Pakistan." Narrate the events of next few days.
The Quaid had one last conflict of mind with Lord Mountbatten just before the creation of Pakistan as an independent country. Congress had asked the Viceroy to become their Governor General. Lord Mountbatten expected that Muslim League, too, would extend him the same kind of invitation. But Muslim Leage decided to ask Jinnah to be their first Governor General which annoyed Lord Mountbatten.
The Quaid-e-Azam flew to Karachi on the 7th of August, 1947 to become the first Governor General of Pakistan. On reaching Karachi, he was welcomed by a large number of Muslims at the Airport. The people felt very excited and happy on the occasion of their freedom. They owed to him for their independence and had come to thank him. They cheered as he passed through them. He, however, looked serious and grave. He had no time to rejoice. A new country was being born. There were so many problems to be solved. He felt worried for millions of people who had become homeless. He had always hated violence by nature. Yet the angry crowds would not listen to him. They were killing each other and were destroying property. All this made him feel extremely sad and solitary.
The Quaid was a practical man and so soon after reaching the Government House, he started giving instructions. He ordered that a radio set should be installed immediately as he wanted to hear the news. He examined the Government House and gave orders about the use of each room. He even examined the inventory and discovered that certain items belonging to the House had been taken away. He issued orders for bringing back all such things which were missing.
His presence created lot of excitement and zeal among his followers, though he himself seemed to be unaware of it. In fact, he was reserve by nature and never sought any warm contact with his followers. These were very difficult times requiring all the strength of character and a strong will. A new government was to be established within a very short time despite the fact that there was virtually no furniture or stationery in the rooms of the Government House. Yet the Pakistanis surprised the Europeans by their zeal and determination. Soon tele-phones wires were strung, the rooms furnished and typwriters began to clatter. The Pakistanis had created their own little Whitehall almost overnight. Behind all this enthusiasm was the personality of Quaid-e-Azam.
All that time he was also preparing his speech for the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. He told the people they were free to practice their religion. It did not matter which caste or creed they belonged to; they all were equal citizens of Pakistan. He declared that there would be no distinction in Pakistan on the basis of colour, caste or religion. In fact he was reminding his people the teaching of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) who had declared four-teen hundred years ago the sanctity of human life and equality of all men.
Jinnah repeated his request for tolerance once again at the time of taking oath of his office. However, the people did not pay heed to it at the moment. Being in anger against the cruelty practiced against Muslims in India, they were not in a mood to listen to Jinnah’s advice for goodwell towards the minorities. Violence and killing went on for quite some time before the emotions of anger were appeased and people could understand the spirit behind his appeal. All this made Jinnah very sad. Yet Flight Lt. Rabbani saw a happy Jinnah on the day he was about to give oath to the members of Pakistan cabinet. As the aid reports, it was for the first time that he ever saw a look of happiness on his face.
Comprehension Questions
Flight into Karachi
"While Quaid-e-Azam was caught up in this exasperating care of detail, he was also writing the greatest speech...” (Page 126-line 27) "... these mass passions exhausted themselves and gave reason a chance." (Page 128)
Questions with answers
1. What was the Quaid-e-Azam's view on the role of religion in the State?
Quaid advocated tolerance and wanted the state to be impartial in religious matters. All citizens were to enjoy equal rights irrespective of their religion. To him religion was a personal matter which each citizen had to decide himself in the light of his own conscience.
2. Write on the status of minorities in Pakistan?
3. Are the rights and status of non-Muslims different from those of Muslims in Pakistan? What is the Quaid’s view? What is the actual position today?
In Pakistan, minorities enjoy almost the same status as the Muslims. As citizens of one state, all the people share rights and duties equally irrespective of their cast, colour or creed. There are very few posts which are not open for minorities who in all other matters are independent and can practise their religion and customs as freely as the Muslims.
4. "Quaid's argument was neither comprehended nor needed." What was the Quaid's argument? Why did Pakistanis fail to understand it?
Quaid advised tolerance towards the Hindus and other minorities. However, Muslims were angry on account of killing of their brothers in India. Seeing the miserable conditions of refugees who were compelled to leave their homes, the people were overcome by emotions of revenge and enmity. That is why they were neither willing to nor could they understand the spirit behind his appeal for tolerance. Time was needed before the mass emotions had quelled themselves and allowed reason to prevail.
5. What was the greatest lesson that Quaid-e-Azam learnt from the Holy Prophet?
Among other things, the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) taught equality of all men and preached to his followers to observe religious tolerance. The Quaid learnt these principles from the teachings of the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him).
6. What did Mr. Jinnah and Nehru say and do when the terrible communal riots broke out.
Both Jinnah and Nehru were shocked by the wilful killing and they appealed to the people to show tolerance towards other religious groups among them. Nehru even took the risk of his own life and went among the killers to pacify their emotions of anger.
7. Why does Hector Bolitho describe the above speech of the Quaid-e-Azam as the most important speech of his life?
The Quaid-e-Azam delivered this speech before the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan and it became the foundation for the future constitution of Pakistan. That is why the writer has referred to it as the Quaid’s most important speech.
8. What does the Quaid-e-Azam mean when he says : “Hindus would cease to be Hindus, and Muslims would cease to be Muslims”?
The Quaid suggested that in Pakistan there would be no difference on the basis of caste, colour or creed. All citizens would enjoy equal rights and it would not matter whether they were Muslims or non-Muslims.
9. Does religion have any role to play in politics and state affairs? What is the Quaid-e-Azam’s view? What is your view?
The Quaid believed that religion had nothing got to do with politics. The state was responsible for the welfare and security of all its citizens irrespective of the fact which religion they belonged to. I have the same opinion with regard to role of religion in state affairs. However, religion as a source of inspiration for honesty and benevolence towards all plays an important role though indirectly.
The Death of a Great Man "In poise and dignity ....... when he was attending the Round Table Conference in London". This line has been quoted in preface to "The Death of a Great Man" Describe salient features of Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum's character and his achievements.
Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum was a politician of great eminence. The people in N-W.F.P owe to him for their education. As a founder of Islamia College, it was he who provided a chance of education to the poor people of this province. In fact, he procured the romantic site of the ancient Buddhist University for Islamia College. He also helped the college from his position in the government and took a deep interest in all its matters. He wanted to raise it to the status of a self-contained university. Unfortunately he died before this wish was realised. The college was planning to celebrate its Silver Jubilee in March when the news of his death was heard with great sorrow and grief.
In fact Nawab sahib loved Islamia College and he never missed any opportunity to meet the students, teachers and other staff members. He was like a loving mother who wanted to find out everything that was going on for improvement in there. He attended even the society meetings and was always eager to advance its interests in whatever way possible. Had he lived a little longer, the college would definitely have attained the status of a full university.
Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum also caused many political reforms. The British were reluctant to give full civil rights to the people of India. It was only through his efforts that they were forced to introduce some reforms. In fact, he brought about a synthesis between the English and Pathan practices. As a result, N-W.F.P. later emerged as a centre of politics in India.
Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum was a poor man’s son. It was by sheer merit and ability that he worked his way up. He joined government service as a Naib Tehsildar but at the end of his career was working as acting Political Agent Khyber. He was very intelligent. No one matched his wit and understanding. His speech was always rich in humour and wisdom. He was a humble man and always treated other people with respect. He never talked proudly to anyone. He was courteous and polite in his conversation. It was a pleasure to listen to him. He was very generous and kind-hearted, as well. Many poor people were assisted from his own resources every year. Out of his own property, he gave scholarships to the poor students of his community. Particularly it was because of Islamia College that students from villages got an opportunity to get education. Indeed, Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum was a very kind and generous person and the people of this provinve will never forget him.
A Cold Wind at Kitty Hawk "The Wrights worked slowly, painstakingly, thoroughly ..... a glider was ready for testing". This line is taken from "A Cold Wind at Kitty Hawk." Narrate the invention and testing of the first flying machine by Wright Brothers.
Man's desire to fly like birds is indeed thousands of years old. However, this dream was realised only in the recent past. Men flew in balloons, gliders and then in the airships. Orvill Wright, however, was the first to fly in an aeroplane. In fact, they learnt a great deal from the failures of others.
Many people had died in the experiments before flight became possible. Among them, the death of Lilienthal was particularly tragic. When his glider was caught in a gust of wind and crashed to the ground, he had flown dozens of times. The news of Otto's death was heard with great concern by the two brothers who were deeply interested in his experiments.
The Wrights were working for the development of aeroplane. They did not want to risk their own lives by trying unreliable gliders. Instead, they collected all the available information about experiments by others and arranged it properly. Then they made a detailed study to find the cause for failure of these attempts. In the light of this data, they designed and built three gliders. In the last one, they made several flights in order to gain expert knowledge about the laws of aerodynamics. They found out that gliders were unsafe because they were not protected against overturning. To solve this problem, they designed movable wings which could be adjusted during flight to suit to the wind conditions.
The Wright Brothers were constantly working on their machine and improving its design in the light of their new experiments. They had built even a wind tunnel to check air pressure. All summer they worked in their bicycle shop in Dayton while during the winter they took their machines to Kitty Hawk to test them. They worked really hard as well as throughly, and within three years of Otto’s death they had designed and buit their flying machine with adjustable wings.
On 17th of December 1903, they were prepared for the last attempt. If they did not succeed this time, they were going to give up for good. However, their skill and labour brought them success. On this historic day, it was Orvill's turn to fly the machine. It was a strange experience. The pilot lay on the left side of the lower wing while the engine was placed on the right. Wilbur was running along and holding on to the wing to keep it even. Soon the machine lifted ten feet into the air and covered a distance of fifty feet in twelve seconds. In the fourth and last attempt Wilbur made it fly for 858 feet in one minute. In a humble way, the history of aviation started that day.
It was after a surprisingly long time that the real importance of their invention was realised. The story of their success at Kitty Hawk was published in "Scientific Journal" two years later. In the meantime, they had taken their aeroplane to France, where the crowd was overcome with emotions to watch them fly their aeroplane. But it was much later that they made a demonstration flight for the American Government.
Anything a Horse can Do "Helicopters as toys were known to the ancient Chinese". This sentence has been taken from "Anything a Horse Can Do". Relate the story of Sikorsky and his invention of helicopter.
From his early youth, Sikorsky was interested in flying. He actually began with the idea to build a helicopter as early as 1909. He had brought an engine from Paris which he fitted to a wooden box but the machine failed to rise into the air. When one more attempt also failed, he understood that he still needed a lot more information about aerodynamics. He gave up the idea altogether and decided to build an aeroplane instead. By the summer of 1910, he had made himself a machine in which he experienced the dreamlike magic of flying for the first time in his life.
In 1911, he made another flying machine which could fly 1500 feet high in the air. This gave him an idea to build a large aeroplane. He put the suggestion before the Director of the railway wagon factory. Quite unexpected the director agreed to finance the scheme. Sikorsky immediately set to work and by 1913 he had made his first passenger plane. Then World War I began and he had to build a whole fleet of four-engined bombers for the Russian Army. Being the only bombers of that size they, too, made a history in war.
After the socialist revolution, Russia was passing through a severe economic crisis and Sikorsky decided to migrate to and settle in the Unites States of America. Within next few years, he had become one of the greatest aircraft designers. His S-48, completed in 1931, was the first American clipper that crossed the Atlantic. It seemed as if he had forgotten all his former interest in helicopters. During his youth he had bitterly failed in his attempt. Yet it was the greatest ambition of his youth and he had not yet given up the idea for ever.
After a lapse of about thirty years, he decided to continue his efforts again. Up till now, he had been reading about other people's attempts to build helicopters. However, no one had really succeeded so far. Success was perhaps waiting for Sikorsky. Once again he collected his previous threads, and soon in 1914, his machine was ready to be tested. Strangely enough, the machine rose straight into the air. The four months trial flights, too, did not face any problems.
At the end of trial period, a display was arranged for army officers. The pilot made the helicopter hover in the air and picked up a ring from the top of an eight foot pole. It gently placed a bag with a dozen raw eggs on a pre-arranged spot. A man on the ground climbed into it with the help of rope ladder. The officers were amazed to see the pilot performing all these stunts. It was certainly a singular achievement of Sikorsky and was a valuable addition to the contributions he had made to aviation earlier. In this way, his invention proved itself the best servant of mankind.
The First Man in Space "They took him up in a supersonic jet .... for .a parachute drop. He asked ‘What am I to do this time.’ Narrate the training given to Yuri Gagarin.
Yuri Gagarin was the first man who went into the space. However, it was not an unearned honour. He underwent a severe training to become a space-man. His training consisted of many items. He prepared himself for the strain and tension in the face of extreme pressure of gravity and total loss of weight. He had to show presence of mind and prove that he could operate the spaceship under all circumstances. He went into the space but only after he had satisfied his superiors about his endurance, ability and intelligence
Gagarin underwent the most difficult test and trials for this purpose. At the same time these tests served as a training to prepare him for the journey into the space. He was dropped from great heights to descend with the help of a parachute. Sometimes, he was asked not to open the parachute till he reached dangerously near the earth. At other times, he was made to spin in the air. It was called a corkscrewed drop. He had to stop the spinning of his body by using certain tactics.
Next he was locked in a room with a very high temperature. While he was sweating due to heat, he was asked to operate various instruments on a control panel. Then he was fastened on the vibration table where his body was shaken at a painfully high speed. In another test, Gagarin was locked in a room. The air was pumped out while he was asked to write his name. He had written his name only once when he started losing his senses. He came to senses when the air was pumped back but he could not remember losing consciousness. Though they were quite satisfied with him, yet the tests were not over. Now they tied him on centrifuge, a machine which spun him round at a very high speed. This made the muscles of his face twist and he found it extremely difficult to shut his eyes. During this time, too, he had to show that he could use both his hands and eyes. He was asked to watch the figures appearing on a lighted screen and remember them. Then he was subjected to memory tests and was asked to solve arithmetic sums while a voice tried to trap him by giving false answers.
Even then it was not over. Next he was taken up in a supersonic aeroplane and was flown in a curve at a very high speed. For forty seconds he felt as if he had lost his weight completely. During this period, too, he had to perform several operations. After many months' training he was finally ready to go into space.
Yuri Gagarin was the first man to go into space. As the rockets carried his spaceship into space, he felt extreme pressure on his body. Anyhow his training had prepared him for it. His ship travel around the whole earth. He remained in the space for about 109 minutes.
Direct Energy from the Sun "We know that all the energy that mankind has ever used comes from the sun ....... Yet we are only now beginning to use that inexhaustible source of energy in the sky directly." Narrate the various devices invented by man to trap and utilise heat of the sun and generate electricity.
In modern age, energy has become very important for development. The countries that have more of it are certainly more advanced than the ones with less of it. Scientists are, therefore, looking for the resources that could meet the needs of the world. The scientists have found out that heat and light of the sun can be trapped and used for this purpose. As a result, many devices have been invented which have enabled man to make a direct use of the solar energy.
One such device is solar water-heater. It is quite simple. A coil of pipes is placed on the roof and covered with a glass pane. The water circulates through pipes. When the water is heated, it is pumped into the hot water tank. The house then takes from it the hot water supply for use.
Another complicated device is the solar heat pump. The heat of the sun is made to act on a liquid with a very low boiling point. The liquid changes into vapours which in turn pass through a condenser coil and turn again into water. The heat released in this process is then used for keeping the house warm.
One more useful device is the solar cooker which uses the heat of the sun for cooking. It consists of a concave aluminium reflector four and a half feet across which is mounted on an iron rod. The concentrated rays of the sun fall on the pot on a wire mesh holder which is attached to the reflector.
In some countries solar houses have been built. The heat of the sun is made to act on Glauber salt. It melts at 90 F. In the cold season the salt starts freezing and in this way releases the heat stored by it. This heat keeps the house comfortably warm. In some houses, gravel stones are fixed in the space between two walls. During the day they get hot while in the cool night they start releasing heat which warms the house.
Another important device is solar still which is used for distillation of fresh water from salt water. The water in container turns into vapour with the heat of sun. As the vapour pass through the sloping glass roof, they turn into water which is collected in a fresh water container. The salt remaining behind is equally useful.
A solar lamp has also been designed. It consists of a collector panel with a few dozen photo-sensitive cells on the top of a suitcase. There is an accumulator inside which stores the current produced by the solar cells. During the day the device is put into the sun-light and at night a tube-light which is fixed on the underside of the suit-case gives light for a few hours.
In France very large solar furnaces are being used on experimental basis. Mirrors reflect the heat on to the furnaces. In one such furnace, 130 pound of iron is melted every hour with the help of heat from the sun. In Russia, huge solar boilers are being operated. The superheated steam is enough to run a turbo-generator with 1000 kW output.
The scientist have also suggested that if forests of quick growing trees are planted, these can provide a permanent source of burning wood for the boilers of medium sized power stations. The most useful device, however, is the solar battery which is now being used in space exploration.
Comprehension Questions
Direct Energy from the Sun
“The most primitive device for catching and trapping the heat of the sun……” Page ……. of East and West. “with the heat collected in the summer.” Page ……..
Questions with Answers
1. State in your own words the mechanism of solar water-heater.
The solar water-heater collects heat from the sun. Usually a coil of pipes is placed in a shallow box on the roof-top. The box is fixed into black concrete. The water is made to circulate through the pipes. The hot water is then pumped into a water tank. The household is supplied its hot water needs from this tank.
2. What is a solar house, and what role does Glauber’s salt play in its operation?
A solar house is the one which is built in such a way that it is kept warm during winter with the heat from the sun collected in the summer. Usually some medium is used for storing the heat of the sun and then releasing it gradually according to the need. Glauber salt is a very efficient medium for this purpose. In large containers, tons of glauber salt are stored in the cellar of the solar house. During the summer it melts with the heat of the sun. In winter it turns again into its original crystal form and as such releases the stored heat. This heat can be used for keeping the house warm during the cold season.
3. How does a heat pump heat a house and provide hot water? Discuss
A heat pump collects the heat from atmosphere and uses it for converting a liquid (usually one with a low boiling point) into gas. This in turn is made to pass through a condenser coil which acts as a compressor. As a result the gas is turned into liquid state again. The heat so released can be used for providing hot water to the household or for heating the house.
Pavlov "The work which Pavlov had been doing on digestion now led him…" Describe the experiments and discoveries that Pavlov made.
Pavlov was a great Russian scientist who made outstanding contributions in the field of biology. Most of his research work was later published by the Russian Government, an English translation of which appeared as "Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes. He proved that most of the human actions which were formerly believed to be under man's conscious control are really the result of conditioned reflexes. His experiments showed that digestive juice starts with the mere sight of food. The flow of digestive juice in this case is an example of reflex action. The sight of food, on the other hand, serves as a stimulus for the flow. He also proved that some of these actions can be caused by artificial means. Such actions are actually 'acquired behaviours' and, therefore, should be called conditioned reflexes. Through experiments on dogs, he proved that if an animal was pricked, or tickled at the time it was given food, then after some time this act itself caused the flow of digestive juice. In other words the animal learnt it as an indication of food and now even if the food was not present, this act alone served as a stimulus for the reflex action of producing digestive juice. Such a stimulus is now known as unusual stimulus and the reflexes caused by them are called conditioned reflexes. Pavlov proved that many different kinds of stimuli could be developed through experiments and that it was the work of one particular part of the brain (the cerebral hemisphere) to set up such stimuluses.
Pavlov also managed to describe the nature of sleep to some extent. In fact it was quite by chance that he started this field of inquiry. He was doing experiments on a dog and, reaching late for it, he found that the dog was sleeping. It seemed obvious that the sleep was caused by the very conditions of experiment. This made him start a research on the nature of sleep. Eventually Pavlov succeeded in explaining sleep in terms of several reflex actions.
He also worked on a condition in dogs which is similar to so called nervous break-down in human beings. After several experiments, he was able to prove that the cause for this disease was in the body rather than in the mind. In fact, Pavlov proved that the cause for many mental diseases was in the body while it was supposed before him that these diseases were caused by some trouble in the brain. It was only a partial success, yet it paved the way for further research in this field in future.
Pavlov was a simple and hardworking man. He continued his research during very hard times. During the food shortage, he shared his own meal with his dogs. When trams stopped during the war, he went to his laboratory on bicycle. He worked in candle light when electricity failed. He grew vegetables and worked personally in his garden. All his life, he was punctual to the second in his daily activities which were performed like a fixed routine. It was because of this hard discipline that he continued his research to the end of his life. In the last ten years of his life, he was the head of three large research departments.
Comprehension Questions
Pavlov
"The work which Pavlov had been doing on digestion ... The sight of food gives the animal ........” (Page 169 - line 1) ........ ".. smaller part in the action of animals and men than is normally supposed. "(Page 172 - line 14)
Questions with answers
1. What is a reflex action?
There are many actions in both men and animals which are not under the conscious control of the living organism. In fact, these are performed machine-like by the body in responses to a stimulus. Such actions are known as reflex actions. Some examples are the beating of the heart, winking of eyes, certain types of allergy of eyes and skin etc.
2. What is the difference between "a reflex action" and "a conditioned reflex action?"
A conditioned reflex action is caused by an unusual stimulus acquired through experience, whereas a normal reflex action is not acquired but is inborn in nature. However both are machine-like and automatic responses to a stimulus whether it is an unusual or ordinary one.
3. What part does the nervous system play in determining human and animal responses? 4. What conclusion is drawn from his experiments?
From Pavlov’s experiments, it may be deduced that in human actions, the conscious mind plays much less important role than what was previously believed. It also showed that a particular part of the mind sets up these conditioned reflexes.
5. Give examples of "unusual stimuli" that resulted in a flow of digestive juice in the dog.
Pavlov used various unusual stimuli to cause the flow of digestive juice without food being present before the animal. These included the ringing of a bell, flashing of a light or pricking the dog's skin every time the food was given to it. These experiments proved that after some time the animals associated these acts with the giving of food. The same now served as a stimulus for starting the flow of digestive juice independent of the normal stimulus of the sight of food.
6. What did Pavlov do to stop the flow of digestive juice and with what success?
Pavlov wanted to use the same stimulus for opposite results. His experiments now aimed at using these very stimuli for drying the digestive juice. In other words he wanted the organism to stop producing the digestive juice while the food was placed before the animal. However, we are not told whether or not Pavlov succeeded in his experiments.
Iqbal's Message “Communalism, in its higher aspect, is then indispensable to the formation of a harmonious whole in India.” This line has been taken from the presidential address of Iqbal at Allahabad in 1930. Write in your words what did Iqbal say about the formation of a consolidate Muslim State in India.
In his address to the annual session of the Muslim league held at Allahabad in 1930, Iqbal pointed out that India was not one nation. Here the units were not based on territory as in European countries. In fact, the situation here was quite different as India was a continent of human groups which belonged to different races and different ethnic or religious groups. Their social behaviour was not determined by a common race consciousness. Even the Hindus did not entirely consist of one race as the low caste Hindus were not treated on equal terms by the Brahmins. In such a case, it would prove extremely dangerous to solve the problems of India without giving rights to all the major human groups. The Western type of democracy which is based on the assumption of territorial units would not solve the problem and it would fail completely. It would not and could not succeed unless an equal right of self government was given to the Muslims in those areas where they enjoyed majority.
Iqbal expressed his belief that the Consolidated Muslim state consisting of Muslim majority provinces of Punjab, Sindh, N-W.F.P and Bluchistan had now become the destiny of Indian Muslims. He refuted the claim made in the Nehru committee that such a state would fail to provide full protection to the minorities. Though larger in area as compared to some of Indian provinces, it would be far less in population. Iqbal proposed that Ambala Division and some other districts with Hindu majority be excluded from this state. As a result, its area would also become less and there being a much smaller number of non-Muslims, it could easily provide protection to the minorities. He pointed out that Muslims from these parts served in British Army and police. In fact, the British rule in this country was made possible because of them. After the creation of a Muslim state, they would prove even better guardians of India. They would protect it against any attack from outside and would defend the country against any threats to her cultural heritage, as well.
Allama Iqbal clarified the role of such a state. The British and the Hindus did not need to fear that a separate Muslim state would result in a kind of religious rule there. Islam does not believe in the government of a religious hierarchy like that practised by the Church in Medieval Europe. Islam conceives state as an organism based on contract. The people living within a Muslim state enjoy full rights irrespective of the fact which religion or caste they belong to. He gave an example how in the past the Muslim states did not impose restrictions on official rates of interest despite the fact that Islam clearly forbids the realisation of interest on loans.
Iqbal suggested that the creation of a separate state for the Muslims would enable the Indian Muslims to develop their own culture freely. It would give Islam real opportunity to get rid of the negative elements imposed upon it by Arab Imperialism. It was also in the interest of India as it would create peace and stability within India as a result of an internal balance of power between Muslims and other communities.
2. "Those phenomena are the premonitions of a coming storm. This is the inevitable outcome of a political civilisation which has looked upon man as a thing to be exploited and not as a personality to be enlarged....". Give the main points of Iqbal's speech (in 1932) to the Muslim Conference.
3. "Presiding over the session of Muslim Conference in 1932, Iqbal elaborated the programme for the Muslims of the subcontinent if they desired to lead an honourable life free to follow their own ideals." This line has been taken from "Iqbal's Message". What was Iqbal's programme?
Iqbal had deeply studied the situation in India. His insight made him predict what was going to happen in India in the coming years. He analysed the main cause of the Muslim's down-fall. In fact it was through his insight, that the Muslims knew not only the cause for their malady but also as the cure for it.
In his presidential address at the session of Muslim Conference, Iqbal warned the Muslims about the coming storm. He pointed out that the British rule in India and elsewhere was doomed. Peoples of Asia and Africa couldn't accept the Western civilisation which was based on exploiting other nations. The west had looked upon man as a thing to be exploited. It ignored the need to develop his personality by cultural forces. Whatever was happening in different British colonies was a warning against this inhuman approach.
Iqbal pointed out that the West believed in the right of private ownership. A man could collect as much wealth as he wished. There was no responsibility on him towards the society. This thinking was entirely against the temperament of Asia. Iqbal explained how Islam gives rights to the individual but also disciplines him to spend all his wealth in serving mankind. Islam does not allow wealth to be circulated in a small circle. It believes that wealth cannot create anything. Value of human efforts in producing wealth is so great that it should not ignored as is done in Western economic system. Iqbal suggested that Islam still possessed the potentials of improving their living conditions. It can still create a society in which all people are treated as equal irrespective of their riches. In an Islamic society, the social rank of a man is determined on the basis of his moral conduct and not by his caste, colour or the profit that he makes in business.
He analysed the condition of Indian Muslims and suggested that a return to the purity of Islam was the only cure for all their ills. The Muslims had imprisoned themselves into a prison of false beliefs and customs that were not based on the original teaching of Islam. These thoughts and emotions that they had come to believe indispensable, were really woven round them over the centuries as a result of their passive attitude to the problems of daily lives. They had even failed to prepare their young generation for the coming economic, political and religious crises. The Muslims had stopped exploring the depth of their inner beings. They had forgotten to feel the urge of rash desires and ideals. If they examined their daily lives in the light of their ideals, once again they would become strong. Iqbal told the Muslims that the flame of life cannot be borrowed from others. It must be kindled in the temple of one's soul. The Muslims must not rely on others for help. They should depend only on their own efforts.
4. "A separate federation of the Muslim provinces ........... is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India to save the Muslims from the domination of non-Muslims". Reproduce the arguments advanced by Dr. Iqbal in his letter to the Quaid-e-Azam in support of his proposal for a separate homeland for the Muslims of India.
Iqbal was a man of deep insight with a thorough understanding of the situation in India. In his letter to the Quaid-e-Azam, he told him about his opinion with regards to the solution to the political and economic problems of Indian Muslims. In fact his letter of 1937 was in line with his arguments that Iqbal had already communicated to the Quaid in his letter of 1931. In that letter he had claimed that after a long and careful study he had come to the conclusion that the enforcement of Islamic laws could secure the right of basic needs to everyone in India including both Muslims and other communities. However, without a free Muslim state, it was simply impossible to enforce and develop the Shariat of Islam in India. The only course left open for the Muslims in such a case was to demand a separate country for them where they could freely develop and practice Islamic laws.
Iqbal was of the opinion that Muslim majority provinces should form a federation as only in this way the Muslims could be saved from the domination of non-Muslims. In his opinion it would solve not only the economic problems of Muslims but it would also bring internal peace and harmony to India. However, if such a solution was not accepted by the British and other parties, the result would be a civil war. Iqbal believed that Hindu-Muslim riots in themselves were a kind of civil war that had been going on for quite some time. He feared that in some parts of the country particularly North West India, the situation would not be much different from that in Palestine.
Iqbal further pointed out that Jawaharlal’s concept of socialism was going to cause much bloodshed among the Hindus themselves. It was obvious that Brahmins would not accept the right of equality by the lower castees. He reminded the Quaid how Buddhism had failed in India for the same reason. He was not sure what would be the fate of socialism but he could clearly see that for Hinduism it was impossible to accept social democracy. On the other hand it would be a return to the original spirit of Islam if social democracy was accepted in some suitable form consistent with its legal principles.
In 1931 letter, Iqbal emphasised upon the Quaid-e-Azam to give serious considerations to this proposal. In his opinion it was the best answer that the Quaid could give to Jawaharlal’s atheistic socialism. In other words, Nehru was to be told that Muslims did not need to act on his proposal as their own religion had a solution for the current problems. He suggested to the Quaid that time had come for Muslims to demand a separate country for them.
Comprehension Questions
Iqbal’s Message
"The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim India is therefore perfectly justified." (Page 175) . "... autonomous Muslim states will mean the introduction of a kind of religious rule in such states." (Page 177)
questions with answers
1. How was the creation of a consolidated Muslim state in north-west India advantageous to India?
The creation of an independent Muslim state was going to result in an internal balance of power. This in turn would bring peace and security to India which was and is always a need for progress and prosperity.
2. How would such a state benefit the Muslims?
If the Muslims had their own independent state, they would have an opportunity to integrate their faith with the latest scientific knowledge. They could mobilise their laws, education and customs bringing them all in closer contact with the original spirit of Islam as well as the spirit of modern times. It would also provide a centre to Islamic culture and enable it to get rid of the un-Islamic elements which were really a legacy of the Arab imperialism.
3. What objection did Motilal Nehru have to the formation of a consolidated Muslim state in north-west India? What reply did Iqbal give?
The Nehru Committee rejected the proposal on the ground that such a state would be too large in area and population. As such it would not be in a position to provide security to the minorities. Iqbal pointed out that the Muslims from these regions served in army and police. In fact these people had made possible the British rule in India. It was quite natural to expect that they would work with even greater sense of duty for their own country. Moreover, Ambala division and some districts with Hindu majority might be excluded from this state to further decrease the number of non-Muslims. In this way the Muslim state could protect them more effectively.
4. What was the ideal which inspired the Muslims to demand a Muslim state or states within India?
According to Iqbal the demand was inspired by the wish to bring peace and security to India. This was not possible as long as there was no internal balance of power between Muslims and Hindus.
5. What did Iqbal say to remove the fears and suspicions of the Hindus regarding the creation of autonomous Muslim states?
Iqbal pointed out that Islam did not believe in Papacy or the rule by religious scholars. Islam believes in social contract and the non-Muslims living within a Muslim state enjoy full civil rights. Nothing is going to be imposed on them against their wishes. As an example he referred to the practice of Muslim states in India which did not put any restrictions on regulating the rates of interest despite the fact that Islam forbids charging interest on loans.
Comprehension Questions
Iqbal’s Message
"These phenomena, however, are merely pre-monitions of a coming storm which is likely to sweep over whole of India." (Page 178 - line 2) .... "This is the whole secret of individual and collective life." (Page 179 - line 25)
Questions with answers
6. Dr. Iqbal has given three reasons for rejecting capitalism. What are those reasons?
Capitalism is totally against the spirit of Islam. It considers man as merely a thing to be exploited and not as a personality to be developed by cultural forces. Secondly it values material wealth as an end and gives no importance to the moral and spiritual values. Finally it gives unlimited and unrestrained freedom to the individual. Although Islam also recognises the worth of individual, it teaches it followers to serve humanity.
7. Describe the features of Islamic social order.
1In Islam, there is no distinction on the basis of colour, caste or amount of riches. All men are equal and the social rank is decided by the piety of character. 2It teaches us that private property is a trust and we are accountable for it. 3Islam creates a society in which taxes are levied on rich for the benefit of the poor. Then 4Islam does not allow wealth to accumulate in a few hands or to dominate the real producers of wealth. 5Moreover, in Islamic society, the bond of cohesion is based on equality of spirit and 6there is no ban on the marriage of even a slave with the daughter of the king.
8. Iqbal says: "This superb idealism of your faith needs emancipation from the medieval fancies of the theologians and legists." Explain.
We need to recognise between essential elements of Islam and different theories of theologians of Middle Ages. The later are not an integral part of Islam. These are often doing us harm. It is essential for us that we find our own solution to the problems of modern times in the light of Islamic teachings and principles.
9. What, according to Allama Iqbal, is a pre-requisite for changing an unjust social order?
Iqbal believes that outer circumstances of a society do not change unless the people of the society undergo a complete transformation of their inner life. They must examine their daily activities in the light of their aims and ideals. This habit keeps their eyes fixed on their goal and saves them from unmanly compromise with the forces of evil and injustice.
10. Explain the following maxims, bringing out the difference between the two:
a) "He who has steel has bread." (Mussolini)
b) "He who is steel has everything" (Iqbal)
Mussolini suggests that if a nation has weapons, it does not need to fear starvation. They can seize food for themselves from weaker nations. Iqbal approaches the issue in a different manner. He does not believe in material gains. He advises the Muslims to be firm and strong in their faith. This conviction will give them the courage to defy injustice or tyranny in any form. Then not only their material needs will be fulfilled but they will also have spiritual satisfaction and peace of mind.
Comprehension Questions
Iqbal’s Message
"After a long and careful study of Islamic law, I have come to the conclusion ........”(Page 180) ....... " Perhaps this is the best reply you can give to the atheistic socialism of Jawahar-lal Nehru." (Page 181)
Questions with answers
11. Why did Dr. Iqbal consider the establishment of an independent Muslim state extremely necessary for the progress and economic well-being of Muslims?
Iqbal had come to the conclusion that if Islamic laws were enforced, it could secure the right to basic needs of everyone. As such the application of Islamic laws was the best and only solution to the problem of Indian Muslims. However, the Shariat of Islam could not be enforced unless there was a free Muslim state. That is why he held it essential for the prosperity and well-being of the Muslims to have their independent state.
12. What does Iqbal mean when he says "I fear that in certain parts of India Palestine may be repeated?”
At that time a civil war was going on in Palestine between the Jews and Muslims. Iqbal warned that such a situation could occur in India, as well. The Muslims and Hindus were already at war against each other in the form of communal riots. This situation could become worse and result in a civil war.
13. "The issue between social democracy and Brahminism is not dissimilar to the one between Brahminism and Buddhism". Explain.
Both social democracy and Buddhism believe in equality of all men. Brahminism, on the other hand, is based on distinction of race and birth. It divides human beings in classes giving some a superior status on the basis of birth. Buddhism was opposed by Brahminism and so it failed in India. The same might happen again if social democracy was introduced among Hindus.
14. Do you agree with Iqbal's view that social democracy is not opposed to the teachings of Islam?
There is a great similarity between both of them in their attitude towards individual. In fact, equality of all men is a major principle of both Islam and democracy. It seems a fair deduction to say that Islam is not averse to the idea of social democracy.
15. What according to Iqbal, was the best reply that the Quaid-e-Azam could give to the atheistic socialism of Jawaharlal Nehru?
The best reply on the part of Muslims was to demand a separate country organised on the principle of social democracy in some suitable form. In fact, Nehru's attempt to introduce atheistic socialism was a negative as well as extremely harmful approach in a country like India. It was dangerous to deny the importance of religion where the vast majority believed in one or other creed.
The Pakhtuns "Pakhtunwali is not without nobility", says Peter Mayne in "The Narrow smile". According to him, what are the chief characteristics of Pakhtunwali?
The fact is that the historian and anthropoligists differ among themselves about the origin of Pakhtuns. Some trace them to the Pakti tribe mentioned by the Greek historian, Herodotus. Others claim that the lost tribes of Israelite can be found among the Pakhtuns. However, there is no evidence one way or the other. Peter Mayne has, therefore, supposed certain things about the Pakhtuns in order to justify his opinion how the concept of Pakhtunwali emerged among them in the first place and what form it did take later on.To start with he assumes that the Pakhtuns came to these hills on different waves of migration and that they were widely varied in origin. Moreover he assumes that these tribes were weaker when they came here; otherwise they would not have settled in these ragged and barren mountains where, despite their cultivable valleys, life on the whole is very hard. These lead to another assumption that Pakhtun tribes remained on war with each other having disputes over grazing lands, waters and the like. The result was that only hard and tough tribes occupied the fertile valleys. Then for various reasons, the tribes had to travel through the territory of others. It became necessary for them to adopt a kind of code to be practised by all. This code was known as Pakhtunwali and it has three principles. Firstly, all who need should be given food and shelter. Secondly, those that demand must be given protection against their enemies. Lastly an encroachment on one's rights must be repulsed.
Peter Mayne concedes the point that “Pakhtunwali is not without nobility even if it springs from violence and mistrust.” However, he claims that the code itself came into being due to hositility among the Pakhtun tribes and their constant mistrust and suspicion of each other. He believes that Pakhtuns do not allow anyone to speak for them. They have no spokesman and no leader. They cannot unite for a single common cause unless it offers an immediate and concrete advantage that can be equally shared by all. He mentions how Khushal Khan Khattak, an eminent Pashto poet, failed to unite them against the Mughal empror Aurangzeb. According to the writer, Khushal Khan had managed to enjoy the favour of Pakhtun mercenaries just because he could buy them with the Mughal gold. But later on, as a fugitive from Mughal prison, he was no longer accepted as a leader even by his son Behram Khan.
The writer believes that Pakhtun do not accept the superiority of anyone among them as there is often no agreement between the sons and their father. That is why during the British reign, maliks or other such leaders invented for them by the foreigners could not compel them to submission. They obeyed such leaders only to the extent of their personal advantages. Now that Pakistanis have come to rule the situation has not changed much as far as the tougher of the independent Pakhtuns are concerned.
2. What does Peter Mayne say of Pakhtun's notion of invincibility?
Peter Mayne claims that there is a false notion among the Pakhtuns that they cannot be subdued. In his opinion this notion has grown over the centuries. When an invader passed through their country on his way to India, they assumed that he failed to conquer them. The fact is that there was no charm for these invaders in the barren hills. They just wanted to reach the rich lands of India which was like a gold mine for the greedy; as such they tried to pass through these passes as quickly as possible. On the part of these invaders no serious attempt was ever made to subdue the Pakhtuns living in the impassable mountains. On the other hand, most of the Pakhtuns living in the plains were easily conquered by the Sikhs and later by the British. Those tribes who remained free managed to do so just because they lived in remote and impassable mountains. As such there is no truth in the Pakhtun's notion of their invincibility.
Then, as the writer further remarks, such freedom was maintained at the cost of extreme poverty. The writer can see no point in maintaining freedom at the cost of extreme misery and he believes that this fact is now generally recognised by the Pakhtuns themselves, particularly the plainsmen Pakhtuns. In his opinion, those Pakhtuns were lucky who were defeated by the invaders as they are leading a much better life.
On the basis of these so called facts, the writer makes a distinction between the two types of Pakhtuns. He uses the term Pakhtuns for only those tribes who live in the free mountains on either side of the Durand Line. On the other hand, the plainsmen tribes, who were conquered by various invaders and who as a result are now much prosperous, are referred to as the Pathans so as to distinguish them from the independent tribes living on either side of the Durand line. These consist of the tribes living as protectorate of Pakistan and Afghanistan respectively. In fact, The creation of Pakistan has brought no change in this situation. These independent tribes are well aware of their importance and have relations with both Pakistan and Afghanistan. Their geographical position has enabled them to enjoy favours from both sides and yet remain free from the political influence of both Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Pakhtuns enjoyed this special status during British rule and they still hold this political trump card when Pakistanis replaced the British.
Comprehension Questions
Pakhtuns
“I had never been to the Bugti country.” ……. … ……… “The tribes play the political game instead of football, and with unorthodox brilliance.”
Questions with answers
1. What basic difference does the writer point out in the nature of the Baluch and that of the Pakhtun tribes?
The Pakhtuns are by nature a wild and unruly people. They do not believe in the wisdom of any one else. Every Pakhtun is his own leader and admits no one’s superiority. Baluch, unlike the Pakhtuns are at the disposal of their leaders and obey them unconditionally. They act accoring to the will of their tribal leaders.
2. Why were the British not so successful in subjugating the Pakhtun tribes as they were in subjugating the Baluch tribes?
The Baluch followed into the fold of British Government on the suggestion of their tribal leaders. The Pakhtuns, however, had misgivings about the wisdom or superiority of the so called leaders imposed by the British Government. The refused to follow the orders of such leaders until the British had the power to impose their orders. As such the Pakhtuns could not be brought under British control just through these self-arrogated leaders.
3. Why is it difficult for the Pakhtuns to unite as a whole?
The writer claims that Pakhtuns unite for such a cause which is sure to bring concrete and equal reward for all. They do not believe in the enlightment of tribal leaders and do not admit anyone’d superiority. As such it is extremely difficult for Pakhtuns to unite as a whole.
Comprehension Questions
Pakhtuns
"So who are the Pakhtuns? .. I choose to believe those who say that none of the Pakhtun..” (Page 196) "... and they all go in their own way in consequence."
Questions with answers
4. What is the origin of Pakhtuns?
The writer believes that the Pakhtuns came to this part of the world in various waves of migration. He also thinks that the Pakhtuns are not one nation but widely varied in origin.
5. What prevents the Pakhtuns from becoming a strong political force?
There is no unity between the different Pakhtun tribes. No one admits the superiority of others. There are differences within sections of a tribe and often in each home. The fact is that every Pakhtun thinks of himself as the sole leader of Pakhtuns. The result is that no one accepts the leadership of anyone else.
6. What light does Pakhtunwali throw on Pakhtun character and life?
It clearly indicates that the Pakhtuns are men of honour. Not only are they hospitable but also generous in many situations. However, Pakhtuns do not make any compromise on their rights. If anyone transgresses their rights they are bound to retaliate.
7. What has the author said to show that the Pakhtuns are extreme individualists?
The author says that there is no unity even among the members of a family. Sometimes there are conflicts of opinion even between sons and their fathers. They have individual ways of thinking and will not accept the view point of anyone else.
8. What are the most admirable qualities in the Pakhtuns' character and way of life?
The Pakhtuns are brave people and throughout their known history have never hesitated to offer any sacrifice for the sake of their freedom. They are men of honour & protect their enemy if he requests for shelter.
Comprehension Questions
The Pakhtuns
"By the turn of the century it all looked quite nice on paper - a sort of Neapolitan ice-cream” (Page 200) ... ".. that the status quo had been assured"(Page 201)
Questions with answers
9. What does "Neapolitan ice-cream" mean? To what phenomena is Peter Mayne referring?
Neapolitan ice-cream has several layers, each with a different colour and flavour. In the given context it is used to suggest that the Pakhtuns as a nation have three separate political divisions. Those who live in N-WFP and Baluchistan are referred to as Pathans and they are Pakistanis. The second division is of those who are under the protection of Pakistan but are, in fact, as independent as is the third group of them living in the mountains of Afghanistan.
10. What was the status of Pakhtuns in Afghanistan?
The Pakhtun tribes living in Afghan mountains were independent of the Afghanistan government.
11. How did the Pakhtuns react to the departure of the British and the creation of Pakistan?
According to the writer, Pakhtuns were realists as well as opportunists. They tried to have better relations with both Afghanistan and Pakistan after the departure of the British from India. Therefore, they sent their tribes-men to the new government with good wishes for their success and in return were assured of the benefits and allowances they were receiving beforfe.
12. What kind of relationship do the Pakhtuns have with Pakistan on the one hand and Afghanistan?
The Pakhtuns have very good relations with both the governments. In fact, they ignore the Durand Line in their daily lives and do not belong to either Pakistan or Afghanistan. However, they have great political wisdom and, in no case, would like to miss a chance of enjoying benefits from either side.
13. What gives the Pakhtuns their strong position and bargaining power?
The Pakhtuns are independent of both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Moreover, they occupy the inaccessible mountains between the two countries and could cause much trouble for them. As such neither of the countries can risk annoying them or losing their good-well.
Responsibilities of Youth "Now that we have achieved our goal ..... namely one of the greatest states in the world." Reproduce in your own words the advice given by the Quaid to the students of Islamia College.
In his address to the students of Islmai College, the Quaid mentioned how the student community, and particularly the students of N-W.F.P had played a very important role in the struggle for Pakistan. The people of this province had given their unmistakable decision in favour of joining Pakistan and the students had done a great deal of canvassing for this purpose. In fact, both the students and people of this province had never lagged behind other provinces in the struggle for Pakistan. Having acquired their own country now the students would definitely wish to make Pakistan one of the greatest states in the world. As such, they would welcome a bit of advice from him as to how this glorious aim could be achieved.
The Quaid-e-Azam pointed out to them how the situation had changed from the past. Previously, it was a foreign government which they wanted to change but now it was their own government. It was quite natural to have a different approach now. Then they were critical of the government but now they were supposed to co-operate with and help the government in solving their problems. He warned against negative politics. It was time for constructive criticism and not of agitation and protests which they had recourse to when there was a foreign governemnt.
Moreover the students could help a great deal with their constructive criticism. Some people for their selfish reasons might aim at creating disunity. But their efforts should aim at bringing peace and stability to the country. He reminded the students that now that they were free, their first and foremost duty was to develop a sound sense of discipline. They must take advantage of their stay in the college and equip themselves for the future duties. They owed it to their parents, their country, and particularly themselves to develop a sound academic background.
The Quaid advised them to be on their watch. They should not let themselves be misled by rumours or disinformation campaign by the enemies of the state. The Quaid reminded them that there was a common fault with the students that they believed there was nothing which they did not know already. As a result, the students often did not pay heed to the advice by their elders. It was a negative attitude not to learn from the experience of the old people as it would do them more harm than to anyone else. Once they grew old, they would gain wisdom and experience to realise their mistake in not following their elders’ advice. But it would have been too late by that time. They would already have paid a big price for it.
The Quaid also warned against provincialism. Pakistan was created to play a prominent role in building the future of the whole Islamic world. As such they should often be prepared to sacrifice even their national interests for this purpose.
Finally the Quaid stressed the need for technical and commercial education. Freedom had created many new opportunities. They did not need to depend on a job in an office as their sole future. Their services were needed in many other fields now. They could become doctors, engineers, bankers and executive officers in commercial concerns. Their future would be brighter there than as a clerk. He also stressed the need for observing discipline in life.
How Many People "In 200,000 years the Homo Sapiens multiplied to 2,500,000,000. It will take thirty more years to add another 2,000,000,000", says Ritchie Calder. What has he said about the rapid growth of world population and the measures to check it?
World population is rapidly increasing. Measures to check this growth are not likely to succeed. According to the UN's estimates, the world population will reach the figure of 7,000 millions by the end of this century. In this way, it has become one of the greatest problems. The major factor in the growth of population is the advance made in the field of medical science. Many tropical diseases which were fatal in the past are now easily cured by cheap and effective drugs. As a result many babies who died before youth now survive, marry and procreate. Then, the average age has been considerably increased in the developed countries. So the decrease in mortality rate in advanced nations and high birth rate in backward countries are the major factors responsible for increase in the world population.
On the other hand, the science of agricultural has not made as much progress as the science of medicine. It is possible to save many people from diseases but it is not possible in the same degree to get an equal increase in the yield from forms. The result is that millions of people face the problem of starvation. Then closely connected with it is the problem of great disparity between the rich and poor nations. World resources can provide for the whole population. But there is acute scarcity in the backward countries.
At the beginning of 20th century, the developed countries contained one third of the world's population. But by the end of this century this ratio might go down to one fifth. Birth control is more effective in these countries. But growth of population in poor nations is increasing much faster. This means that the ratio of rich and poor will grow even worse. It is not possible for poor countries to increase their produce. These nations don't possess the means to purchase modern machinery, better seeds, or fertilisers. They cannot acquire the necessary skill for operating this machinery so quickly, either.
Another problem is that the population is not evenly distributed. The rich countries have much less population while the backward countries, on the other hand, have to support much larger population. In this already grim situation, the rapid growth of population has become a great threat to the world. It can cause upheavals in world politics. No doubt that the present resources of the earth can provide for 16,000 millions or even more. There are the vegetable resources of the sea which have been ignored and it is also possible to breed fish for food. Moreover, those regions which were previously not considered suitable for growing crops can be now used for certain staples. But to meet this problem, the world needs a far greater degree of co-operation and technical skill. It also requires a greater sense of responsibility. We need to be much more rational and co-operative than ever before. But man has a limit and it is very difficult to observe the kind of restraint that is required. Unfortunate there is not much co-operation in the world, either. It means that we are drawing closer to a mass destruction when the world resources would become insufficient to support such a large population. That is why the UN’s experts demand research in effective birth control. If we failed to appreciate the seriousness of the problem, we might be paving the way for a big disaster which would not be much different from a mass suicide.
Comprehension Questions
How Many People
"In the life time of the younger politicians of today ...” (Page 210)....."can modify the social, political upheavals inherent in this demographic revolution." (Page 211)
Questions with answers
1. What is meant by demographic revolution?
Demography means the study of the characteristics of human population and population segments. By this phrase the writer is referring to sudden changes that the rise of population in poorer countries can cause in world politics. According to the writer, such a revolution has got nothing to do with political ideology or religion. These changes will be caused only by the rising population in the under-developed countries and could prove extremely disastrous for world peace.
2. Name two factors responsible for the increase in the rate of population growth.
According to the writer of this passage, one of the biggest factors is decrease in mortality rate. This, in turn, has become possible because cheap life saving drugs are now easily available for many tropical diseases. Formerly these diseases were fatal and caused heavy tolls of deaths in Asia and Africa.. The other factor is that in developed countries the average age has been almost doubled. As such people now live for much longer than in the past.
3. Why, according to the author, will the gap between the rich and poor countries go on widening?
The one reason is that the population of poor countries is increasing more rapidly than the developed ones. The other reason is that the poor countries do not have means to increase their yield from farms. They need more funds to buy high quality seeds, fertilisers and farm machinery but with their poor resources and ever increasing burden on economy, they can not afford to spend money on such items. Besides, they can not introduce modern farming methods due to the lack of skill in operating farm machinery on a large scale.
4. How will the increase in population affect the pattern of world politics?
The number of people will increase in poor countries more rapidly than in richer ones. This will cause a general discontent and complaint against the unequal distribution of resources. And whenever there is discontent, it always breeds the germs of insecurity which in turn make it necessary to have recourse to drastic measures on the part of one side or the other.
5. What has the author said about the economic development of the Third World countries?
The writer thinks that the west has to provide much more technical and financial assistance to the backward countries than ever undertaken before. This is the only way to avoid disasters in the near future.
Comprehension Questions
How Many People
“The population quandary is obvious.” (Page 211) …….. “There is no agricultural equivalent to malaria control .... “ (Page 212)
Questions with answers
6. State the factors that are responsible for increase in the world population?
According to the writer of this passage, one of the biggest factors is decrease in mortality rate. This, in turn, has become possible because cheap life saving drugs are now easily available for many tropical diseases. Formerly these diseases were fatal and caused heavy tolls of deaths in Asia and Africa.. The other factor is that in developed countries the average age has been almost doubled. As such people now live for much longer than in the past.
7. How is the situation in under-developed countries different from that in the developed ones?
The rate of population growth is much greater in the under-developed countries than in the prosperous and developed ones. On the other hand, their resources are comparatively much scanty than those of the highly advanced countries.
8. Describe the nature of the scientific research for human well-being recommended by UN experts.
The United Nation's experts suggest that proper research should be undertaken for controlling the birth rate. We need such measures which can check the drastic growth of population and at the same time are suitable for use on a larger scale by the ordinary people.
9. What is the duty of developed countries?
The writer thinks that the west has to provide much more technical and financial assistance to the backward countries than ever undertaken before. This is the only way to avoid disasters in the near future.
10. What is genocide? What is "selective genocide."
Genocide means killing a whole race. If cheap and effective life saving drugs are denied to the poor nations, it would amount to selective genocide.
Comprehension Questions
How Many People
" Unfortunately the science of agricultural has not made the same advances ...” (Page 212).....".. sufficiently quickly can they acquire the know how." (Page 212)
Questions with answers
11. Why is food production not keeping pace with the growth of world population?
The world population is increasing more rapidly than the means of food production. In fact, the science of medicine has made enormous progress and now many fatal diseases are easily and cheaply curable. A similar advance has not been made by the science of agriculture. As such more people are rescued from death now but the means to provide them with a decent living have not been found as yet.
12. What was the food situation like in 1958?
As compared to the previous years, there was a decline in food production in 1958. However, it was still more than sufficient to feed the entire world population. It was a different matter that still millions in the poor countries starved for food.
13. The writer says that the food production in the world is sufficient to feed the entire world population. Why, then, are millions of the human beings underfed and dying of hunger every year?
The problem is that some countries have more than enough for their needs while most of them have far little. It is true the food was and is available on the global level but obviously the rich and prosperous countries with comparatively much less population always have several-times more than the poor nations of the world. The result is that millions of human being remain underfed and starve while the richer nations are bathing in prosperity and plenty.
14. Why is food production unsatisfactory and inadequate in the third-world countries?
Population in these countries is increasing at a much faster rate than their food resources. The food production, no doubt, can be increased but for this purpose they need to use better quality seeds and fertilisers. Moreover they need to introduce machine production but all this requires financial resources which these nations cannot provide in view of large pressure of population on their economy.
15. Is medical science making satisfactory progress in curing diseases?
In the field of medicine, world community has made much more progress. We have now cures for many widespread diseases which were formerly considered fatal. In many cases the drugs are much cheaper and are available all over the world. It is true that in case of some diseases we are not so lucky but on the whole the situation is quite satisfactory and even encouraging.
How Many People
Synopsis:
By 1960, man had multiplied to 2,500 millions. It was estimated (in 1960) that by 1990 there would be an increase of 2,000 millions and by the year 2000, the human population might reach six or seven thousand millions. This increase will also upset the ratio between the poor and rich nations and might result in untold upheavals. The major cause for this rise in population is discovery of cheap medicines for various tropical diseases. This factor has increased the average age besides reducing the death rate almost dramatically.
The present resources are enough for the entire world but richer nations have small population while poorer countries have a much larger population. The earth resources, if fully utilised, might even provide for over 16,000 millions but for this we need social organisation and specialisation of human activities. However, there seem little prospects of that at present. As such, we will undo ourselves unless we check this disastrous growth before it is too late.
Main Points
1. The world population reached the figure of 2,500 millions in 200,000 years. But by the year 2,000 it will have reached to six or seven thousand million. It means that since 1960, the population will have increased twice or even thrice.
2. According to a cautious estimate by UN experts, each man would have only standing room (i.e., one square metre space) after 600 years.
3. Even the immediate prospects are quite as much alarming. More people will survive due to an effective disease control.
4. To accommodate such a large number of people, a far greater degree of cooperation and social organisation will be needed of which there seem little prospects.
5. The estimates for 1980 had to be revised by one thousand millions in view of the real figures for China being 600 millions instead of 463 millions as were previously guessed.
6. The increase in population is much greater in poorer countries and by the end of 20th century the Europeans, which were one third at the beginning of this century, will be one fifth of the Asians.
7. There seem no prospects of decrease in population in near future. In countries of low fertility, no further decrease seems possible and birth control in others can not bring any great change.
8. The distribution of resources is even graver as the countries with larger population have much smaller share of food. No amount of cooperation is likely to prevent the social and political upheavals that can be caused by this situation.
9. On the one hand, the death rate has declined, while on the other hand, the average age has been almost doubled. It is neither possible nor ethical to disallow the cheap medicines to the poor countries and as such their population will keep increasing.
10. The science of agricultural has not made the same progress as medical science and as such it is becoming more and more difficult to feed the world population.
11. In 1958 the global food production decreased for the first time. Yet it was more than enough for the entire world. However, the problem is caused by the fact that countries with larger population have much less food than what they need.
12. The poor countries cannot afford fertilisers, better seeds or farm machinery which can increase yield from fields. It will also be difficult for them to learn operating these modern tools very quickly.
13. Science has made it possible to grow crops in previously impossible regions and climates. The vegetable resources of the sea can also be utilised. With these the earth could sustain even more than 16,000 millions.
14. However, this requires specialisation of human activities and a much greater degree of social organisation. Moreover it needs discipline and restraint on the part of each individual. But all this does not seem possible to attain.
15. Unless we check this growth of population we would be committing suicide like lemmings (rats).
Comprehension Questions
1. Is it really possible that each man will have only standing place after 600 years? Why?(Page 208)
2. Why do the minimum figures of the UN’s experts seem irreversible? (Page 209)
3. “More disturbing than the projected figure of a population mount to 6,000 or 7,000 million by the turn of the century is the fact that it will probably be attained that soon.” Explain.
4. Why does the estimates (for 1980) of the UN Bureau of Social affairs do not agree with its previous calculations of 1954? (Page 209-10)
5. What has the writer said with regards to birth control in India, China, Japan and Latin America?
6. How is the situation in under-developed countries different from that in developed ones? What will be its consequences and what measures are needed to prevent its inherent social upheavals? (Page 211)
7. State the factors responsible for increase in the world population.
8. Describe the nature of scientific research for human well-being recommended by UN’s experts.
9. Why is food production not keeping pace with the growth of world population? (Page 212)
10. What was the food situation like in 1958?
11. The writer says that the food production in the world is sufficient to feed the entire population of the world. Why, then, are millions of human-beings underfed and dying of hunger every year?
12. Is medical science making satisfactory progress in curing diseases?
13. Why can’t the food production be increased in the third world countries? (Why is food production unsatisfactory and inadequate in these countries?)
14. “The limits of numerical survival do not depend on technological progress alone.” Why? (Page 213)
15. How can the food production be increased to a level to sustain more than 16,000 million people?
16. “This would be a Belshazzar’s feast at which we would have ignored the plain writing on the wall.” Explain what does the writer mean by it?
17. What does the writer mean when he says that it is like sharing the death wish of lemmings?
Education for Tomorrow "A great deal of debate about equality has now become out of date since it is based on three assumptions" This sentence has been taken from "Education for Tomorrow". What are Vaizey’s assumptions? What are his views on education?
In modern countries, most of the children are not given education according to their needs and aptitudes. This seems to Vaizey a violation of children’s rights. He believes that each and every child is entitled to the best possible education according to the principles of equal opportunities. He notices with concern how in many countries a selection is made at a very early stage of life and accordingly some children are sent to the best schools and courses while the rest are provided with somewhat inferior facilities of education. Yet it is claimed that these societies are based on the concept of equal opportunities for all.
In order to justify such a gross injustice, it is often suggested that selections are made on the basis of merit. Sometimes, the later achievements of both types of students are compared to prove that such a choice was right. In the writer’s opinion, these statements are merely automatic in nature and prove nothing. It is obvious that those children who are given best chances in life will naturally perform better as compared to those who are neglected and deprived of their basic right. In fact, the latter deserve more attention as being socially deprived they cannot express themselves as well as the former.
The writer reminds his reader that scholarships were created in the past just because it was believed that boys and girls from working classes could perform equally well if they were provided places. It is now generally believed that a few scholarships are not sufficient for the large number of intelligent students. Such scholarships are providing places for only top five per cent of the intelligence distribution among the poor classes. The result is that a great deal of talent of the highest level is lost every year due the prevailing unjust systems of education.
It might be true that children differ in inherited ability, yet a great deal of intelligence is acquired than inherited. Many experts believe that intelligence does not remain a fixed quantity. It increases over the years. Naturally it is the basic right of every child to be given the best education to develop their abilities. A selection at an early age results in sheer injustice.
Three reasons were given in favour of selection in the past. Firstly, it was assumed that educational resources would always remain scarce. Hence selection was thought necessary to avoid wastage. The second reason was that it was formerly supposed that majority of the people didn't need best education. They would be doing routine and ordinary jobs. Only leaders would need the best education. Thirdly, it was assumed that intelligence was a fixed quantity and it could be measured at quite an early age.
None of these reasons are, however, valid any more. The modern society has reached a greater degree of prosperity. Every child can now be given the best education. Similarly the demands of modern times are much greater. It is mostly a world changing very rapidly. The modern man faces great strains. Unless he is highly educated, he cannot modify his attitude. The idea of fixed ability is also challenged now. It has been proved that the intelligence of a child can be greatly increased through various means. It is also obvious now that tests at an early age cannot help determine the IQ of young boys and girls. If a decision is made on the basis of their intelligence at an early age it would only result in injustice towards many children.
In the light of these facts it has become necessary to provide every child the best possible education. The society can achieve this purpose by providing better living conditions for its children.
Comprehension Questions
Education for Tomorrow
"One of the great drives towards improvement in education has always come from the passionate concern.” (Page 214) ... ".. to that especially provided for middle class children by their parents" (Page 215)
Questions with answers
1. Are all children treated equally and given the education best suited to them?
According to the writer, some students are given the best possible education while the rest are provided with comparatively inferior type of education. It appears from the passage that even in developed countries all children are not treated equally.
2. What was the old interpretation of “Equality of Opportunity”?
The old definition seemed to be that every person was entitled to such chances in life for which his level of ability and intelligence qualified him. The same principal applied to the children’s rights of education. Accordingly some of them were to be provided with the best possible education. The majority of others, being less intelligent, had to content themselves with the next to best education.
3. In what way is the new interpretation of “Equality of Opportunity” different from the old interpretation?
The new definition provides for equal chances of acquiring best possible education to each and every child according to his aptitude and needs. It means that instead of depending on the level of their ability at the time of selection, the children should be given chances to acquire intelligence. As such it is the duty of the society that poor and culturally more deprived children are given more attention.
4. What does the writer mean by village Hampdens?
Thomas Gray, a nineteenth century poet, in his “Elegy on a Country Churchyard’ has lamented the fate of people of Hampden. He says that we should not look down upon their graves with scorn if there is no tombstone pointing out their achievements in life. There might have been judges, statesmen, scientists and other competent people among them but life gave them no chance of showing their talents. The writer by using the term Hampdens is referring to children from among working classes who could not display their talents just because they did not have the chance to acquire proper education.
5. What is wrong with the present system of education and how does the author (John Vaizey) propose to make it more useful and egalitarian?
The present system of education is unjust. It does not provide equal chances of education to those who are culturally deprived. The writer wants to the society to realise its responsibility towards such children. The society should make efforts to raise the standard of living of every person so that children should have best environment for acquiring education.
Style and Purpose 1 “Part of the intricacy of co-ordination in using language lies in the different constraints operating in speech and writing.” This line has been taken from "Style and Purpose". Describe in your words all that Quirk says about the three basic principles to be observed in all uses of language.
English is quite rich in the variety of it styles. This fact poses a problem. Each situation demands one and only one particular style. No other style will do. We must, therefore, see that our style is suitable for our purpose and that we are using the same throughout. Mixing of various styles will result in ruin. Then we must observe that the words that we use belong to the same style. This principle also applies in the use of word collocations and conventions of grammar. If we mix conventions that in fact belong to separate styles, our language will give the impression of laziness. This fact is obvious from the fact that there are different conventions for speech and writing. But these are not the only divisions and many other classes are possible on the basis of subject matter, purpose and degree of intimation. In case of all these we have to observe the conventions of actual usage with regards to suitability of words, their collocations and grammar in each style.
Some great writers may seem to us as being careless about conventions of collocation. It cannot become an excuse for us to ignore such conventions, however. The fact is that we admire such writers for their greatness and not on account of their carelessness about the conventions of language. We rather excuse their mistakes because they are otherwise great. Then conventions serve as a yardstick, as a standard against which to judge originality. A collocation appeals to us as original just because of a deviation from normal usage. It depends for its effect on the awareness of conventional arrangement. Unless we know the norm, we cannot appreciate originality of a collocation.
The fact is that when we come across a specimen of originality, it is appreciated just because we know exactly what the normal collocation is. ‘Bitter sweet’ as the title of Noel Coward’s play surprises us due to the fact that normally these two words are mutually exclusive and are not collocated in ordinary speech or writing. At least it must be obvious that for a beginner it is imperative to master the conventional way first before he can think of practising originality.
So the problem of choosing a suitable style is very important. Letters serve as the best example. We can easily see that body and form varies from one type of letter to another. The decision about the opening and end of a letter depends on the degree of intimacy. Then the body of the letter also corresponds to the style we are using. In this way, the style of our letter varies from close intimacy to cold formality. A mixture of different styles will just ruin the letter. We, therefore, need to observe great care. In the same way, we must be careful in our use of English for all other purposes. It is important that we know one style from the other and are able to use it consistently in its proper context.
2. Reproduce what Quirk has to say about vagueness and use of clichés in his essay "The Use of English".
Words are not good or bad in themselves. Their character is decided by the context in which they are used. When a word is used in an improper style, it gives the impression of bad English. Certain situations require a precise expression. A thoroughly expected collocation simply fails in such cases to convey precise meanings. It can be termed clichés in such contexts and the result is often bad English.
The use of unnecessary words is also a mark of bad English. No purpose is served by mere repetition of different words for the same idea. The readers rather begin to think that the writer is hiding his ignorance. We feel that the writer is trying to deceive us by using bombastic words. So the expression fails in its aim.
A vague expression is not necessarily bad. It may be unintentional in some situations and then it may give a wrong impression. However, there are times when it is far more useful to employ a vague style. Examples can be quoted from some of the best poetry and novels. Great literature often owes its appeal to vagueness. In such a case, the vagueness is conscious and deliberate. Even in normal conversation we make use of it. We take pains to be vague about unpleasant facts. In these situations, vagueness is not only useful but often a difficult art to acquire. An advertiser uses the same method though for selfish reasons. We need to know what the advertiser is after so that we can protect ourselves from being misled.
There is another thing which we must realise. Facts do not speak for themselves. The way they are described makes a great deal of difference. A viewpoint about facts is also quite important, therefore. This fact can be easily noticed if we study a law-suit. Here, the same facts are made to stand for different things. If we want to cultivate the habit of objective thinking we must try to understand the viewpoint of others about facts. On the other hand, if we are not trained enough to judge facts for ourselves, we can be easily deceived.
Comprehension Questions
Style and Purpose
"Part of the intricacy of co-ordination in using language lies in different constraints operating in speech and writing.” (Page 220) ...... ".... will tend to be different (and consistently so) in the two types of letters" (Page 221)
Questions with answers
1. What must a writer do as a preliminary step before he even thinks of attempting to write in an original or unconventional style?
It is difficult to appreciate originality of style without first knowing the actual or normal usage of language. So it is very important for a writer to master the conventional style first. He must understand that he has to choose out of several available styles the one that is most appropriate for his purpose. Then he must observe the conventions of word collocations and grammar that go with that style.
2. What is unusual about the title of Novel Coward’s play “Bitter Sweet”?
In this example, the phrase ‘bitter sweet’ contains two words which are normally not collocated together. It, therefore, comes as a surprise and we are delighted with the novelty of the idea that bitterness can be sweet. In other words, our enjoyment of the originality of the idea depends on our knowledge of what is the normal collocation.
3. Why is it important to begin and end a letter in the usual or conventional manner?
The beginning and end of letters are fixed by the actual usage within a community. If somebody does not observe the proper forms, most people have a very poor opinion of him. It indicates that the writer is either a stranger to the conventions of that particular social group or, at the least, a rash and careless person who has no respect for the norms of the society.
Moreover, language communicates only as long as the accepted conventions are observed. In case these conventions are ignored the statement fails to put across the right idea.
4. Show that the styles of letter written to different persons and for different purposes must be different?
Letters can be written for various purposes and to different persons with whom we might have a varying degree of intimacy. Accordingly, our style can vary between extreme formality and deep affection. Then in some situations we are not writing to the person but the position or office that he holds. In such a case our style must be totally impersonal to be objective and precise.
5. Explain the words paradoxical, collocation, hoary witticism.
Here the word ‘paradoxical’ has been used in the meaning of absurd or unreasonable. Collocation is arrangement of words. Hoary is used in the sense of grey with age and as such it refers to old age or a very long time. Witticism means ‘humour and so the phrase means humour that has been in use for a very long time.
‘Mahabat Khan mosque is the true Peshawaris' favourite sight.’ This sentence has been taken from "The way of Pathans”. Describe the life picture of Peshawar as narrated by J. Spain.
J. Spain visited Peshawar in connection with some official business. He walked about the city and watched its different aspects. In the central square of the city, he saw with a crowd a "hakim" making a practical demonstration of his medicines. The hakim got himself stung by a cobra snake on his wrist where he had rubbed some ointment. In this way he tried to convince his audience that his medicine could protect them from any harm. One man in the crowd told the writer about his misgivings, suggesting that the hakeem had somehow tricked people but he expected that some day the hakim would make a mistake which would cause him trouble and that would be well worth seeing.
Later the writer visited some of the old inns in Peshawar where once caravans from Central Asian states and Afghanistan brought their goods for sale in the city's market. There he saw the worn-out skin of a white snow-leopard. This convinced him of the former glory of the city. According to the writer Peshawar is a city of romance with a rich Pathan flavour. He believes that everything about the city reminds the travellers of this and one is sure to find a hint of its former glory almost everywhere. Some places, like Mahabat Khan Mosque, are centuries old. These buildings give one the impression of calm and quiet and through them one looks back at the past. The writer climbed one of the minarets of the mosque to have a look on the city. He remembered how the Sikhs, when they reigned here, hanged the Muslims from the minarets of this mosque. He felt sure that for all its glory such a death was very difficult for those who were hanged from the minarets.
With their rush of business and variety of goods, the business streets of Peshawar represent another very important aspect of its life. There are dozens of these business streets, each of which deals in some particular trade or other. The writer wandered about in the Shoe-Bazaar and the Street of Hardware merchants. He was apparently much impressed with the variety of goods offered for sale. He describes his funny experience at a shop where he saw a very large knife and thought it was meant for cutting crop. The shopkeeper corrected him by making a gesture which showed that it was rather used for cutting throats. In fact, the city is famous for quite a large number of products like shoes, caps, carpets and hardware goods. Yet these are just a few of the novelty things of which the quality is as much impressive as the variety. The writer noticed that the prices were very low in comparison.
The writer says that tea stalls are one of the most common features of the city. These are scattered in every business street. They cater for a variety of tastes. However, the most popular drink of all seems to be 'qahwah'. It is prepared with great care which reflects the excellent taste of the Peshawari people.
The Peshawar Cantonment is modern in its style. The broad streets with their English names remind of the Victorian England. The Mall with its green lawns also lends a special charm to it. The large bungalows with their local history and the comfortable hotels also add to its beauty. The cantonment has its own Bazaar which is known as "Saddar". Though it was designed after the West, it has now acquired the charm of East.
The Peshawar cantonment presents a lovely fusion of tradition and change. There is a museum down the railway station which fosters an impression of calm and serenity. The statues that stand in the museum take us two thousand years back in time. In Peshawar Club, one has the same feelings. The pictures on its walls, though not much old, have transformed into a living tradition. Both the cantonment and city seem to carry hundreds of years on their shoulders. Its buildings are modern in style, no doubt; yet it is a city centuries old.
The university itself has been built on a site thousands of years old. Once there was located an ancient Buddhist university which the ravages of time had changed into a desert. In 1951, when the writer visited it for the first time, it was a single building and was known as Islamia College. He had come to find out what kind of help the Fullbright Foundation could offer for it at some later date. For this purpose he met Khan Abdul Qayyum Khan, the then Chancellor of the University, who told him about the plans and future requirements of the University. When the writer later visited the university again, he was surprised to see how rapidly it expanded. Now it came to be reckoned among the best in the world and is the unique achievement of this province over the last two thousand years.
Mahabat Khan Mosque
The Mahabat Khan Mosque is a beautiful building and everyone in Peshawar seems to love it. People from all over the country come to see it and say their prayers here. The atmosphere is that of great calm and peace. Its vast court is made of tiles. People are bowing on rich red carpets which lie on its floor. In the middle, there is a pool of cool and clear water. The minarets of the mosque shine brightly in the sunlight. Climbing up into one of them, a visitor can have a panoramic view of the whole city around.
The mosque has stood there for centuries. It recalls to mind the old times when Sikhs ruled over N-W.F.P. Those were really hard times for the Muslims as two of them were then hanged every day from the minarets of this mosque. That time is over now, while the mosque still stands as a memorial to those valiant Muslims who gave their lives for the glory of their faith.
Tea Stalls
Pathans are very fond of Qahwah and other varieties of tea. Tea stalls are, therefore, a common feature of the city. The business streets of Peshawar specialise in different trades. Yet tea stalls can be seen almost everywhere. These are about six feet wide and six feet deep with a narrow passage opening to the street. Usually there is the same kind of equipment which includes a brass samovar, and china cups and teapots. The owner sits near the fireplace with a warm and pleasant smile on his face.
The tea stalls cater for a variety of tastes; some of them specialise in black tea; others, in Kashmiri tea. Most of the tea-stalls, however, serve "qahwah" which is a national drink of Pathans. The care taken in its preparation reflects on the refined taste of Peshawaris.
Peshawar Museum
The Peshawar Museum is situated at some distance from the Cantonment railway station. The statues that stand in its dark corners look like ghosts. Still they seem to be kind and polite while their originals were very harsh and fierce people. Tourists rarely visit this place. In fact, the museum offers very little that could be worth seeing. Yet it gives an insight into the culture of this part of the country. One can see old coins of petty Greek rulers who ruled over this province soon after the death of Alexander the Great. There are some remains of old dresses and pots and some books of old origin and that seem all. Anyhow, the museum is a favourite place. Particularly school boys love playing about the wooden horses in the museum which are the funeral effigies of the Kafirs of. Chitral.
Indus in Fetters "Today I corkscrewed down the Kohat side of the mountains to see the Indus in his Fetters." Narrate the passage from Kohat Pass to the Attock Bridge and what Toynbee saw there.
Toynbee visited the Kohat Pass and he describes it with great excitement. He recalls how he could not afford to stay here last time. In fact he had to reach Beirut and therefore could not enjoy watching the view from here. But now he had plenty of time and so he decided to visit the bridge across the Indus River at Khushalgarah. Standing on the summit he looked down over the green cantonment of Kohat which was green and beautiful. The writer tells us how the passage that leads down to it from the Kohat Pass is extremely dangerous. He compares it to the road round Sorrento Peninsula in Naples. The mountains seem to run down in huge steps and the road turns round them steeply. One is bound to feel frightened as he drives on this road. One slip could be fatal. The writer describes the passage leading down to the Bridge near Khushalgarh as even far more terrifying. It seems as if the road is surrounded by the huge waves. The Indus itself looks like a stream surrounded by the waves of a huge ocean.
On reaching Attock, the Indus enters mountains. Its waters then flow through a narrow and rocky path from Attock to Kalabagh. The writer refers to these two places as fetters of the Indus River because its path through the rocks is like a prison where its waters are kept confined. The waves seem to be in hurry to reach their exit at Kalabagh where they are set free again. From Kalabagh onwards, the river flows at a slow pace down all the length of Sind.
The writer spent a whole day at Attock watching the view from the bridge. He noticed a man pushing a batch of his sheep into the inlet between two rocks. The sheep looked frightened as they fell down into the inlet. At first, the writer felt surprised. He could not understand why the man was treating the sheep so harshly. He wondered whether he had become mad or he was possessed by some evil spirit. He recalled an incident from the Bible which tells how the Christ took out the evil spirit from the body of a man and put it into the swine. The writer wondered whether this man was a reincarnation of the same evil spirit. However, the sheep started swimming soon and then he realised that the man was only a shepherd who was giving a bath to his sheep. The sheep did not drown. They rather quietly began to climb up to the other side of the shore. The writer felt sure that if these were an English breed, they would have died of panic.
This incident strengthened his belief that eastern breed is definitely superior. Now he realised why the Pathan poet Khushal Khan Khattak had used the term "sheep-like" for describing the valour of his tribesmen. In fact the eastern sheep are beautiful and courageous. The writer enjoyed watching the waves all day.
A Tell like Jericho "If you imagine a blend between Lombardy and the Ghuttah of Damascus you can conjure up Gandhara in your mind." Narrate what Toynbee has said about Charsadda Mounds, Shabqadar Fort and the Buddhist monastery.
Charsadda remained the capital of Gandahra till the Kushan emperors transferred the seat of their government to Peshawar. For centuries it played a very important role in the overland route between India and the rest of the old world. This fact is revealed by the two mounds at Charsadda. They represent the history of three thousand years. The offices and royal palaces were built on these mounds. Every time Charsadda was invaded by a foreign nation, these buildings were destroyed. The mound grew higher with each new conquest. The construction on these mounds stopped after the attack by Huns in the 5th century A.D. The seat of government was then transferred to Peshawar by the Kushans. The mounds have been desolate since then. The writer says that the bigger mound resembles the "Tell at Jericho" in its height.
Charsadda can be viewed as a blend between the two civilisations - Ghuttah and Lombardy. Yet one of its aspects is quite unique. It is the delightful view of its rivers when they flow out of mountains into the plains. Through the rocky path, the rivers flow at a very slow pace. But on reaching the exit, they flow out at tremendous speed. At these places the volume of their waters is also very great.
The Fort at Shabqadar is situated on a hill. It was originally built by the Sikhs. But it was later captured by the British. Presently it is the headquarters of the Pakistan Frontier Corps. The fort narrates the story of a long occupation by men. The remains of the Sikh and British occupation reveal how futile human efforts are. The Sikhs and the British conquered and occupied it in turn, but now they have gone; only their monuments are left behind. The fort, however, still stands to remind of the futility of human efforts.
Takhtbhai is the site of an ancient civilisation. Yet, it narrates a different story. On the top of this hill, the ruins of a Buddhist monastery are still present. Here the monks led a severe and pious life to escape the cycle of re-birth. The monks succeeded in their efforts and were eventually freed from the grip of Karma. The ruins of their monastery depict a serenity that is quite impressive in itself. It proves that at least all human efforts and achievements are not futile. It reminds us that time can destroy only material achieve-ments while the spiritual attainments last for ever.
Comprehension Questions
A Tell like Jericho
“Some fifteen hundred years have passed since the mound at Charsadda ceased to grow.” (Page 16 - line 6) ....... But up there, on the mountain, all is still. (Page 17 - line 14)
Questions with answers
1. "Sikhs and British have come and gone and the monuments of their fleeting occupation testify to transitoriness of human achievements.” Explain.
The Shabqadar Fort reminds us how futile and useless human efforts are. Initially, the fort was built and occupied by the Sikhs. Later on it was captured by the English, who built the upper storey. However their possession did not last for long. The fort is still there, while their occupation ceased long ago. In the same way, all material achievements of human beings are soon destroyed by time.
2. What is the difference between the mound at Charsadda and the Fort of Shabqadar?
The Charsadda mound contains ancient deposits of the fifth century A.C. and before. The height of this mound, as such, represents a continuous history of human occupation extending over two thousand years. It rose a few feet every time Charsadda was attacked and its buildings were destroyed. The mound does not contain any deposits of later than 5th century. The Shabqadar Fort, however, was built much later and, therefore, it contains deposits of later than 5th century.
3. Why has the monument at Takht Bhai conquered time and endured while the monuments of the Sikhs and the British have not?
The monument at Takht Bhai reflects the struggle of Buddhist monks who had renounced the material world. They lived in the monastery aiming at spiritual purification. That is why the monastery seems to have conquered time. The British and Sikhs, on the other hand, failed in their pursuits as both of them struggled for only material gains.
4. Give an account of the ideals and the way of life of the Buddhist monks.
The monks believed that man's desires are the main cause for his sufferings. According to their belief, man is born here again and again as a punishment for his lust. Therefore, the monks renounced all desires to be released from this evil cycle of re-birth.
5. What is "Karma"? Why is the plain of Shahre Bahlool fast bound in the grip of Karma?
Karma is a Buddhist concept of punishment. The Buddhists believe that man suffers for his desires. To be released from the grip of Karma, he must renounce all desires. Till then, he is born again and again. The plain of Shahr-e-Bahlool, is ever changing because it is still fast bound in the grip of Karma or Time.
Two Wheels over Nine Glaciers "For a combination of beauty, danger and hardships (of enjoyable variety) today wins at a canter." This line has been taken from Dervla Merphy's Book "Full Tilt". Describe her Journey through the Kaghan mountains from Babusar to Abbottabad.
The writer wanted to reach Kaghan on her way to Abbottabad. She was riding a bicycle and was alone. The journey through the hills was both exciting and pleasant but it was also risky and tiresome. All the day long, she faced great hardship and peril on her way to Abbotabad. Surely it needed a lot of courage to pass in front of the glaciers particularly when she did not know when they would start sliding. At one place, she had to climb a steep mountain to avoid a large glacier lying across her path. After a hard and tedious climb, she found herself on Babusar Top. Her surprise was really great as she could not imagine anyone ever going up to Babusar Top with a bicycle.
The journey down the mountain seemed very pleasant and delightful at first. She saw a beautiful valley below and the passage, too, seemed to be very comfortable. But soon she began to face problems. No doubt she had to cross several glaciers on the way but she faced the first real crisis when she reached down to the valley. In order to reach her destination, she needed to cross the river Kaghan. But the bridge had been swept away by the flood. It meant that she must ford the river but she had no idea at where the water was shallow to go through it. She knew that a pony caravan had gone the same way a few hours ago. Therefore, she started looking for their footprints. But the ground was stony and even very careful search could not yield any clue. It was a real stroke of good luck that she noticed a cow coming towards the stream. She decided she must ford the river with the cow's help. So she held her bicycle with one hand and put the other hand around the cow's neck. In this way, she managed to cross to the other side.
On the other side of the river she had to climb up the mountains once again. She was passing through some really beautiful scenery. The mountains were white with snow and the meadows were covered with beautiful flowers. After having travelled for another seven miles, she again faced a very difficult situation. A river lay across her path but it had no bridge. Moreover the river flowed in rocks about twenty feet below the road-level and it was impossible to ford it this time. Then the path, too, was blocked by a steep mountain. She had no choice but to drag the bicycle up the mountain with her.
On reaching the top, she discovered to her horror that she stood at the steep edge of rocks. One step would have carried her down about 1500 feet below over sheer rocks. There was no passage leading down. She wondered how the pony caravan had managed to reach down whom she could see standing beside the river below. However, she soon realised that they had used a huge glacier for this purpose. She shouted to the men below to attract their attention. Then, pushing her bicycle over the slope, she also pushed herself down the glacier. In a little while she reached down, almost breathless and slightly injured, yet without any effort on her part.
The pony caravan was facing a problem. The glacier lying across the river had melted at several places. The men had placed wooden boards across these chunks. Actually they wanted to use the part of glacier over the river as a natural bridge. However, their ponies seemed frightened and refused to walk over the boards. The men cursed and kicked them in vain. The situation seemed quite dangerous to her; yet she remained behind to help them. Then she had a brilliant idea which she conveyed to them in sign language. She told them they should cross to the other side of the hill leaving the ponies behind. In this way the ponies finding themselves alone might cross the river of their own accord. The suggestion was accepted and acted upon which proved very effective. No sooner had they turned to the other side, than the ponies joined them.
Comprehension Questions
Two Wheels over Nine Glaciers
"At this point I stopped to consider what I should do.” (Page 19 - line 27) ....... "I slowly assimilated the unlikely fact that we were on the Babusar Top." (Page 21)
Questions with answers 1. What does the writer refer to by the idiosyncrasies of the glaciers?
The writer is actually pointing out that she could not judge from the condition of a glacier whether or not it was at the point of sliding further. As such she was in no position to decide whether it was safe to walk in front of the glacier or not.
2. What was the weather like and what was its effect on the writer?
The weather was very cold. A sharp wind was blowing and snow-flakes flew all around her. However the writer enjoyed the cold and keen weather and walked bare-headed.
3. What did the writer feel on high altitudes?
The writer felt out of breath every now and then. Her heart was beating very fast and she felt almost certain that she was about to die. However she soon realised that it was an illusory feeling, mainly caused by the fact that she had no previous experience of climbing to such heights.
4. What did she say about the snow?
The snow was extremely soft at some places but extremely hard at others. Sometimes, she sank into it up to the knees. But sometimes she found it difficult even to keep upright while climbing up the mountain. As such it was causing her much trouble and she felt extremely tired by the time she reached up.
5. What is a trail? What are the features of the trail the writer is travelling along? Where does it lead?
A trail is a series of various signs like footprints etc. left behind when someone has gone ahead on the path. One can find out with its help which way the person has gone. In the present situation we are told that she was following the trails of a pony caravan. The trails led her to the Babusar Top. Apparently the pony caravan had little understanding as their trails had crossed many outcrops of rocks. As a result, she had to face several problems in following their trail.
Pipal Pani Tiger "Beyond the fact that he was born in a ravine running deep into the foot hills and was one of a family of three, I know nothing.". This sentence has been taken from ‘Man Eaters of Kumaon’. Narrate the story of the Pipal Pani Tiger.
The tiger was a cub when Jim Corbett saw its foot marks in the sand. Two months later, he had the opportunity to see it for the first time. He was attracted to the spot by a crow. On reaching close, the writer noticed blood on the ground. He came to the conclusion that a deer was killed there last night. Some men had cut and carried away the remains. Nothing was left of the kill. Yet the writer felt convinced that the animal did not know about it and as such would return in due course. He waited over the kill. After some time, he saw the cub appearing from behind the bushes. It was approaching its kill carelessly in broad day-light. The writer had expected to see a grown-up tiger. He had no intention to kill it; at the same time he did not want it to be killed through lack of care on its own part. So, he tried to frighten it by firing a shot in the air. In this way, he tried to warn the cub against approaching its kills so carelessly in broad day-light.
In the following winter, Corbett saw the tiger many times. It had grown in size now and lived in the thick bushes near the foot-hills. Next winter, it found a mate for itself. The writer was led to its kill by a vulture. As he reached close, the writer saw the tiger and the tigress lying on either side of the kill. He was trying to take aim when both the tigers grew alert by a sudden noise and ran away into the thick jungle. Later he found that the tigress had left her mate and now the tiger had resumed its bachelor life.
A year later, the tiger hunted its first full grown buffalo. Jim was directed to the scene of tragedy by its loud roar. He saw the buffalo lying dead on the floor of the ravine but the tiger had gone away without eating it. He waited for it in vain. Being seriously wounded in the struggle, the tiger never returned to its kill. Three years later, the tiger was hit by a bullet and its shoulder was fractured. It passed through the village and occupied a vacant godown but later alarmed by the large crowds of people, it took shelter in the bushes.
The tiger's wound healed soon but for some time it could not hunt large animals. So it did great damage to the village cattle. Now it took only one meal of each. As such, it was killing five times more. In the next few years it grew both in height and reputation and many attempts were made to kill it.
One evening, a villager set out for killing a pig. The tiger passed in front of him. In the darkness, he mistook it for a pig and shot at it with his old-fashioned gun. The animal passed the man and entered the bushes. The man rushed to his hut where other villagers gathered and they decided to search for the pig. Due to a minor accident, the search was delayed for some time which saved their lives. When they arrived at the spot, the tiger had left. The search was resumed next morning. One of the men collected some blood-stained hairs and brought these to Corbitt. From these hairs and from the footprints in the jungle, he guessed that it was the Pipal Pani tiger and that its foreleg had been broken by the shot.
The tiger had not hurt anyone on the two previous occasions. However, it was feared that being old and weak, it might prove dangerous now and might turn man-eater. Corbett was to leave within a few days. He, therefore, decided to make a search for the tiger in the jungle and to kill it. The search did not yield any clues for three days. The next afternoon he met a woman and her son coming out of the forest. They had heard the tiger roaring near the foot-hills. As the boy insisted on showing him the place, Corbitt let him go along. On reaching there, he made the boy sit in a tree with the instructions to warn him quietly if he saw the tiger first. The writer, then, imitated the call of a tigress in search of a mate. The call was answered an hour later and soon the tiger appeared from behind the bushes. It walked straight along the path. On reaching near, it suddenly turned towards the writer. He did not expect it and so was puzzled for a while. However, he used an old trick which made the tiger stop short and raise its head. In this way, the tiger exposed its chest. The writer took aim and fired a bullet into its chest. The tiger was seriously wounded and tried to flee into the forest but fell dead within a few yards.
The Idea of Pakistan What does Ian Smith have to say about the West's antagonism for Islam in general and against Pakistan in particular?
Pakistan is an extraordinary country. Both from military and political points of view its importance can not be overlooked. And yet Western countries do not give due importance to Pakistan. Their attitude towards Pakistan is hostile and they often remain indifferent to her problems. They take no notice of threats to her independence. This indifferent attitude on the part of West seems quite strange and needs examination.
There may be many causes responsible for it, but religious antagonism seems to be the strongest factor involved. In the first place, the Pakistan concept came as a blow to the British. They had assumed that India was one nation. The new concept ran counter to their thinking and was, therefor, quite unpleasant to them. The division of Army was particularly distasteful in view of the prestige that it had recently achieved in the Second World War. The Indian army had great potentials for bringing peace in any part of the world. But now that the country was to be divided, the army too would be disintegrated and lose all its prestige. Obviously both military and civil officers were not happy with this prospect.
Their hostile attitude was further strengthened by another factor. Pakistan consisted of two parts which were a thousand miles apart. There were cultural and economic differences. It seemed almost certain to them that the two parts of Pakistan would not stay together for long. In case of any civil war between the two parts, the Europeans, who were already weary of wars, would have to settle the dispute. All this created dis-taste against the very idea of Pakistan long before it really emerged on the map of the world.
The situation grew worse for Pakistan even after its emergence. Firstly, the reasons for the creation of a new country in India were not properly understood. The West assumed there was no justification for the demand. Those who knew the facts remained silent for different reasons. Some of them felt frustrated as they had always assumed Indians to constitute one nation. But the partition and its resulting riots shook their beliefs and apparently gave the impression that their life-long work was destroyed. Others were bound by rules and could not disclose their knowledge without risking their future positions in government.To some it was unwise to create troubles for the new successor governments by unwanted comments from abroad now that they had ceased to rule. The British Government itself wanted to save British investments in India. It was feared that any interference on their part might displease the Indian Government and as such do harm to their national interests. The other countries, too, did not want to alienate India to avoid risking commercial and cultural interests which they could now avail after the British had left. These were some of the reasons for the strange behaviour on the part of West.
The writer, however, thinks that the attitude of ordinary Europeans and Americans is not explained by these reasons. He believes that there must be some other reason for their antagonism against Pakistan. In fact, the Europeans are made prejudiced against Islam from their early schooling. Any sign of Islamic civilisation in Europe reminds them of their defeat in the Crusades and the conquests of Islam. They regard Muslims, though unjustly, as barbarian and ruthless invaders. Then their bias makes them forget that Islam played a decisive role in evolving the modern Europe.
In the resulting prejudice, the Europeans forget the broad differences between Islam and Hinduism. They assume that the creation of Pakistan was unnecessary and was resulted by prejudice on the part of Muslims. This makes them believe in the face of undeniable facts that Pakistan is a theocratic state and that it aims at new conquests for Islam.
It is mostly for these reasons that the Western countries experience antagonism against Pakistan.
2. How does Ian Stephen justify his claim that Pakistan though an ideological country is not a theocratic but a modernist state?
Pakistan has associated itself with the name of Islam in an unusual way. The fact has given rise to suspicions in European mind. They assume that she is a theocratic society based on prejudice and bigotry. However, the writer is of the view that Pakistan is definitely a liberal and modernist society. The outward style of life is liberal; theologian does not enjoy any power; people from the West are warmly received; and Christian missionaries experience no difficulties at all. In fact there seems no indication of her ever becoming a theocratic state. Islam, too, is not a dogmatic religion and as such it is not right to assume that Pakistan could become a narrow-minded society.
The writer further justifies his stand by giving evidence in its support. Firstly, the very background of Pakistan movement suggests that Pakistan is not a theocratic state. Its leadership came from men like Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Allama Iqbal and Syed Ameer Ali. None of them was a theologian. The Quaid-e-Azam, who made Pakistan a reality, was also liberal and modernist in his thinking. Personally, Quaid-e-Azam believed in secular government. It was only because of the clear threat to the Muslims' political, economic and cultural life that he demanded an independent country for them. He had known the character of Hindu mind over the years and felt convinced that Muslims would ever remain a political minority in an undivided India. He feared that the social and cultural life of Muslims would also be completely ruined if they were not freed from the domination of the Hindu majority.
Even after the creation of Pakistan, its leadership remained modernist. People like Liaquat Ali Khan and Field Marshal Ayub Khan were realists. They tried hard to keep the religion separate from politics. The general structure of society is also liberal and modern. The situation needs to be viewed in its proper setting. Though Pakistan has associated itself with "Islam" in a peculiar manner, yet it needs to be viewed in a quite different context. India does not seem to have accepted Pakistan’s independent status wholeheartedly. Pakistan fears that its freedom is in jeopardy. This is the major reason for its somewhat strict adherence to Islam. Once this fact is realised, Pakistan’s strange behaviour is easily explained.
Comprehension Questions
The Idea of Pakistan
"Pakistan is an independent sovereign country in South Asia ...” (Page 49) .... "..which war-weary westerners would presumably have to try to tide up." (Page 51)
Questions with answers
1 Why did the Hindus despite their huge majority in India fear the Muslims?
The Muslims had defeated the Hindus in the distant past despite being much less in number. They had also ruled over vast parts of India for a long time. The Hindus naturally feared that Muslims would try to subdue them again.
2. Why did the British governing circles dislike the idea of Pakistan?
The Pakistan concept aimed at partition of India. The army, too, was to be divided. Then, the British had wrongly assumed that India was one nation. It was this idea which was challenged. Naturally, the British ruling class disliked it.
3. Why did the British dislike the prospect of the administrative unity of the Indian continent being wrenched apart?
The British governing circles felt that they and their predecessors had been through very hard times to unite India into one country. The partition would result in undoing all this work. Moreover it woulld split the Indian Army, too, which had earned itself a good reputation in the World War II. The split would destroy its ability to maintain peace and stability in Asia.
4. How, according to the writer, is Pakistan an extra-ordinary country?
Most of the countries in the world have been created on grounds of history, politics and geography. Pakistan stands unique among them because it is the only state that has been created to fulfil a religious and cultural aspiration and owes its existence to ideology.
5. What were the causes of communal riots in India during 1947?
Hindus wanted to take revenge for their past defeats. They tried to dominate, destroy or at the least expel the Islamic culture. The Indian Muslims resisted against it and demanded a separate country. These two were the main factors resulting in communal riots.
6. Why were the Western countries sceptical about the survival of Pakistan?
Pakistan consisted of two parts, which were over a thousand miles apart from each other. There were also cultural and economic differences between the two parts. These facts made Europeans fear that the two wings of Pakistan wouldn't stay together for long. As such, they were sceptical about its survival.
7. How did Hindus wish to avenge the series of humiliating defeats inflicted on them by the Muslim conquerors?
The Hindus felt ashamed of the series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the Muslims and wished to take revenge for it by dominating them. They were quite determined to destroy or at least expel the Islamic culture from India. If it was not possible then they would want the Muslims to be practically slaves to the Hindus.
8. What does the writer refer to when he states: “Well, that is no use crying over spilt milk?
The phrase suggests the frustration of the British officials on partition of India. It means that they disliked the emergence of Pakistan as a separte state. However, they thought that nothing could be done about it now and so they had to accept the unpleasant outcome.
Comprehension Questions
The Idea of Pakistan
"And perhaps some Muslim there, observing his predicament, might politely press.” (Page 59)..."un-Islamic practices such as worships at the tomb of saints."(Page 60)
Questions with answers
9. Write a brief paragraph on the relations between Hindus and Muslims in India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The writer claims that over long periods the two people i.e., the Muslims and Hindus lived peacefully. Particularly during the 16th and 17th centuries, the two cultures co-operated with each other or at least did not have recourse to bloody conflicts. In fact, the Mughal rulers tried to unify them somehow for the sake of the political stability of their empire and their efforts were not lost altogether.
10. What was Islam's influence on Hinduism?
According to the writer, Hinduism evolved a new religion in Sikhism. This religion has many similarities with Islam. For example it believes in monotheism, does not worship idols and is based on equality of men. In all these respects, it is different from Hinduism. He thinks that Sikhism emerged as an influence of Islam.
11. How did Hinduism influence Islam?
According to the writer, it was under the influence of Hinduism that Islam allowed un-Islamic practices in India such as worship at the tombs of saints. Moreover the relation between man and God was based on love through the mystical devotions of Sufis. The Mughal architecture also blent Hindu styles of construction with traditional Islamic ones while some of the Mughal rulers married Hindu princesses and took deep interest in Hindu philosophy, poetry and art.
12. What are the possible reasons for the Christian West's hostility to Islam and Muslims?
The writer has pointed out how the Europeans are totally unaware of simple Asian realities. It seems obvious to him that reasons for this unusual attitude is that the Christian West feels prejudiced against Islam. It seems that the West finds it difficult to forget their humiliating defeats at the hands of Muslims several centuries ago. Perhaps they remember with shame how the Muslim conquered Spain and reached even beyond Poitiers. The Muslim conquerors managed to penetrate deep in Europe and were only 200 miles behind from the English Channel. It is feeling of shame that causes hostility towards Islam and the Muslims.
13. Write a few sentences on Akbar as a patriot and nation-builder.
Akbar was a great ruler and he wanted to unite his subjects into one nation. He knew very well that India could not become a great nation as long as there was division among the people. It was with this motive that he tried to unify them under religion of his own devising. The attempt was however utterly a failure because he did not realise that religion is a very sensitive issue and that it takes centuries for a religion to take roots.
Comprehension questions
The Idea of Pakistan
"The amount of dogma in Islam is in fact relatively short: much less than in Christianity…..” (Page 62) "... which so baffles many occidental observers." (Page 64)
Questions with answers
14. What is a theocracy? Do you think Pakistan is a theocratic state?
The writer uses this term to refer to a state based on narrow-minded religious attitudes. The fact is that in Pakistan all citizens enjoy almost equal rights and there is complete religious freedom. As such Pakistan cannot be regarded a theocracy.
15. Describe Ataturk's social reforms?
Ataturk prohibited theologians from taking part in politics. He banned Turkish caps for men and veil for women. He abolished the Caliphate and replaced the Arabic script of Turkish with the Roman one. In fact, he introduced a number of reforms which changed Turkey into a secular state of the Western type.
16. Is the Pakistani society really an intolerant and reactionary society?
Ian Stephen rightly believes that our society is split into two classes. The upper middle class is western in thinking but the masses are religious-minded. Yet, the majority of the people usually tolerate religious differences and, on the whole, Pakistan can not be regarded an intolerant or reactionary society.
17. What does he say about religious views and outlook of the leaders of Muslim revival in Asia?
According to him, majority of the leaders in the Muslim revivalist movement were modernist in out-look. They were not orthodox in any sense of the term. All these leaders were reformers and they worked actively to bring changes in the social and political life of the Indian Muslims.
18. How did most of the theologians react to the demand for Pakistan?
Ian Stephen claims that most of the theologians opposed the demand for Pakistan. They believed in all sincerity that the demand for Pakistan was against the teaching of Islam. In fact, in their opinion the Pakistan concept ran counter to the Islamic thinking since it aimed at dividing Muslim community into separate nations on the basis of geography and politics.
The Holy Prophet "A nature so pure, so tender, and yet so heroic, inspires not only reverence but love." This sentence is about the Holy Prophet (peace and blessing of God be upon him!). Write an essay on the character of the Prophet of Islam.
Many sages and prophets had come before the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him). All these philosophers and reformers had tried really hard to improve human life but they failed to realise their dreams. It was the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) who accomplished this ideal. He alone succeeded in accomplishing theirs as well as his own mission. The success achieved by him was a reward from God for his devotion, sincerity and humility of spirit.
Still his achievements are singular in the history of mankind. The Prophet (peace be upon him) wrought by the sheer force of his character what monarch and kings could not achieve despite their unquestioned authority. Born among an ignorant people far away from the stream of civilisation, he suffered insults, torture and outrages, but eventually elevated them to sublime ideals. Those who had worshipped man-made idols all their life were inspired with a firm faith in the unity of God. Arabs, who were divided into tribes and remained in state of war with one another, were united into a strong nation within years. Arabia, which was culturally a desert, was, within a short period, turned into a centre of civilisation.
All this was done at a time when mankind had fallen to the abysmal degradation. The very followers of Christ had started worshipping an incarnate God although Christ had always preached divine unity. Like the pagans, the Christians had begun to worship Mary as a goddess. Human soul was crushed under the tyranny of priests and such dogmatic beliefs which were unintelligible as well as a mockery of human intellect. The human body, on the other hand, was subjected to the tyranny of kings and rulers.
At such a time, the Prophet (peace be upon him) taught humanity the values and habits of mind which elevated man to his proper station in life. He negated the mediation of priest between man and God. He taught the value of learning to the masses. He reminded them of the ethical faculty in mankind and emphasised the importance of reason. The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) gave a democratic conception of the divine government. All power belongs to the God but it is the man himself, and not the self-made priests, who is the viceregent of God in this universe. The faith that he preached was not restricted to a certain people, like the Jewish religion, nor confined to a certain territory. His was the religion for all the people, for all times, and for all the places.
His achievements and his life will ever remain singular.The Holy Prophet's nobility of character is remarkable. His simple habits, piety, and refinement of thinking impressed even his worst enemies. The Holy Prophet never spoke rudely even to his slaves.He never told a lie all his life. He never wronged anyone, nor did he take revenge from those who had wronged him. He always listened patiently to the poor and needy. Even during times of scarcity he would share his humble meal with those who had nothing to eat. He would do all his work himself, milking the goats, mending his own clothes and waiting upon himself in each and every thing.
In fact, not only his achievements but his style of living and noble habits of mind also relate a completely different tradition from that of other philosphers and sages who came before him. That’s why those who described him would invariably say they had not seen the like of him either before or after.
2. "Your lives and property are sacred and inviolable among one another until you appear before the Lord as this day and this month is sacred for all." Narrate the preaching of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) in the light of this sermon.
The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) addressed his followers at the time of his last pilgrimage. This sermon was an essence of his teachings. He declared human life as sacred. The Muslims were asked to show respect for each other’s rights. He told them that the life and property of every Muslim is as sacred as the place of pilgrimage. Man is accountable for his action before the Lord. On the judgement day, he would be rewarded for his goodness and punished for his evil deeds. The prophet reminded them that they must treat their wives with kindness and affection. Marriage is a sacred bond, allowed and guaranteed by God. Men have rights over their wives but they also owe duties toward their wives. Usury is prohibited and the debtor has the right to only the amount he has lent. Similarly no one is allowed to take another’s life unjustly. As such blood feud which was practiced during paganism is abolished.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) taught humanity the values and habits of mind which elevated man to his proper station in life. He negated the mediation of priest between man and God. He taught the value of learning to the masses. He reminded them of the ethical faculty in mankind and emphasised the importance of reason. The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) gave a democratic conception of the divine government. All power belongs to the God but it is the man himself, and not the self-made priests, who is the viceregent of God in this universe. The faith that he preached was not restricted to a certain people, like the Jewish religion, nor confined to a certain territory. His is the religion for the people of all times, of all the places.
He preached that man can not exist without constant efforts. He declared that efforts are from men; their fulfilment comes from God. To seek knowledge is the duty of every man and woman. He emphasised the value of learning. The world is a well ordered creation guided by the Almighty. He preached that family is a sacred institution and the children, a trust from God. They are to be brought up with love and tenderness. The parents are to be respected and loved Man can earn merit and reward by fulfilling his responsibilities towards the society, not by avoiding it. The circle of these duties includes not only parents, children and relatives but also neighbours and the poor.
A cursory glance at his teachings can show that the Prophet (peace be upon him) is the prophet for all times and that his preaching reflects the modern spirit.
Comprehension Questions
The Holy Prophet
"His life is the noblest record of a work.” (Page 103) ..... ………. "No fairy tale has been woven round his personality." (Page 104)
Questions with answers
1. In what lies the distinctive superiority of Muhammad (PBUH) over other prophets, sages and philosophers?
There had been many sages, philosophers and prophets before Muhammad (peace be upon him) with their visions and ideas for reforming human beings. None of them succeeded in his amibition and had to leave their mission unaccomplished. It was the sole distinction of the Holy Prophet that he accomplished his mission during his life time and entirely on his own.
2. What did Muhammad (PBUH) do for the Arabs whom the writer calls “the dormant people”?
The Holy Prophet united the Arabs into one nation and lifted them out of the spritual and moral abyss in which they were living for centuries. He also inspired them to action by giving them the hope of eternal life.
3. Why does the writer call the work of Muhammad (PBUH) as the work of God?
Others had tried before him to lift the humanity out of its moral and spiritual degradation. These included sages, philosophers and prophets. However they all failed in their ambitons. They departed from the world without realizing their dreams. In some cases their followers tried to impose their teaching through royal edicts or by shedding blood. The Holy Prophet had the distinction of accomplishing his mission during his life time and through his own peaceful efforts. That is why the writer call it the work and the will of God.
4. "The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) concentrated into focus all the fragmentary and broken lights ever fallen on the hearts of men". Explain.
Many prophets and sages had come before with divine wisdom. Their teachings existed in a mutilated shape, or were completely forgotten and lost. The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) taught humanity the word of God once again with the wisdom of the past ages summed up in a whole.
5. How had the followers of Jesus corrupted the doctrine of the unity of God?
The Christ had preached the unity of God. He had clearly declared that he was a Prophet and servant of God. But some time later his original teachings were forgotten and Christians began to adore him as the only begotten son of God. They worshipped him as a partner in God-head. All this was against the teaching of Jesus and a corruption of his message.
6. What did the Prophet (peace be upon him) do to free the body and soul of man?
The Prophet (peace be upon him) declared that all men were equal and that there was no distinction on the basis of colour, race or social position. He freed human body from the tyranny of selfish people like kings and rulers. At the same time, he gave liberty to the human soul by declaring that there was no need for a priest to mediate between man and his Creator.
7. “The Holy Prophet abolished all exclusiveness in man's relation to his Creator?" Explain.
The former religions made it necessary for man to offer his prayers through the mediation of a priest. There existed no direct contact between man and God. He could not pray, repent or even worship but the priest mediated between him and God. The Prophet (peace be upon him) declared against that there was no need for the priests because every man and woman had a direct relation with his Creator.
8. Support the view that the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) is a living Prophet with a message for the modern world.
Islam believes in equality of all men. It encourages people to use their reason. It values learning and gives importance to knowledge. Islam encourages family life and believes in the sanctity of human life. It aims at reforming the masses and on improving their standard of living. All these things prove that the message of Islam is for all times including the modern age and that the Holy Prophet’s teachings are a living force.
Quaid-e-Azam Write about the salient features of Quaid-e-Azam's character as given in Aspahani’s essay entitled "Quaid-e-Azam as I knew him"
The Quaid-e-Azam was a tough task master and himself worked equally hard. He had no time to waste. Everything else had to wait for their turn except his work which he wanted to take care of as early as possible. During the last days of his life, this zeal for work reached to its extreme. Even on his death-bed, he was surrounded by a large number of files. He had refused to follow his doctor's advice to take rest. It was because of this hard work that we lost him at a time when the nation needed him all the more.
The Quaid had a reasonable and logical mind. He preferred an accurate and direct approach to each and every matter. That is why he had no time for a woolly-minded person. One had to be brief, clear in his mind as to what needed to be said on the matter, and to the point if one wished Jinnah to listen to him a second time. His decisions were always based on bare facts and showed a great power of judgement. Sentiments had no place in his life. Then he was a man of strong will and it was almost impossible to make him change his decisions. He would accommodate the opinion of others as far as possible. Where he did not agree with them, he would try to convince them by giving arguments in favour of his own opinion and did his best to win over even the obstinate. One thing was definte, however. He would not bend even slightly from his viewpoint. In fact, under no circumstances would he make any compromise on principles. That was one reason why he succeeded all alone against the best Hindu minds of his time.
Discipline played a very important role in Quaid’s life. He would ask the people even in public meetings to observe discipline. The magic of his personlity was so great that a couple of calls for discipline on the loud-speaker would convert bedlam into pin-drop silence. In fact, he believed that no nation can even survive, much less prosper, without discipline. That was one reason he gave unity, faith and discipline as a national emblem to the people of Pakistan.
Quaid-e-Azam trusted his companions and did not suspect them of selfishness or of selling the cause. If he had any doubts about the integrity of someone, he would become cautious. And once a man was proved to be unreliable, he never again entrusted him with party funds. However, he was generous in his interpretation of others. Even if something went wrong, he would not accuse them of betraying or underming the League. He would always say they made a judgement of error. In fact, he had a balanced personality and so he would not do anything rash either in the excitement of victory or bitterness of despair.
The Quaid was a man of few words and possessed the gift of immense understanding. He would reach to the heart of a problem within no time. Then, he could see into all its implications. The Quaid was the best lawyer and politician of his time for this rare gift. He did not like confusion and had not only the ability but always tried to convey his message clearly and briefly. Obviously Quaid-e-Azam was no master of languages; he did not claim any such thing. He could express himself best in English and though there may be some who would like to find fault with his English, the fact remains that he knew the art of expressing his thoughts in such a way that everyone understood what he said.
Like anybody else, he too had limitations but he knew them and never hesitated in admitting his inability to do something if he did not feel himself qualified for it. Similarly, he was a serious person with no time for frivolous activities, though he had a good sense of humour and enjoyed jokes at the right time.
Comprehension Questions
Quaid-e-Azam
"Quaid-e-Azam, as I stated earlier, possessed a strong will.”(Page 113)...."we and our children live as free people without fear of domination or persecution."(P 114)
Questions with answers
1. How did the Quaid-e-Azam behave towards those who held a view different from his?
The Quaid listened to and tried to accommodate the opinions of other people, as far as possible. In case, their standpoint did not fit in with his line of thinking, he would give arguments to convince them. He would do anything in his power to win over the obstinate except making a compromise on principles.
2. What was more important for the Quaid-e-Azam, the unity or principle?
He tried to seek and maintain unity as long as it was possible. But he did not compromise on principles, even at the cost of unity. Unity was very valuable to him but, when it clashed with a fundamental principle, he always preferred principles over anything else.
3. What is the origin and meaning of ‘Herculean task’?
A Herculean task is the one that is very difficult to do. This phrase is derived from the Greek mythology. Hercules was a very powerful man who had performed certain impossible tasks. That is how the term came to be used for something which needs immense strength.
4. Which quality did Quaid-e-Azam regard as most important for achieving success in life?
The Quaid believed that unity and discipline are the two most important qualities for achieving success. According to his belief, without unity and discipline, no country can even survive, much less prosper.
5. What did the Quaid mean when he said "Vote for a lamp-post if called upon by your party to do so?
The Quaid wanted his people to be disciplined. They should maintain unity and act on the advice their party gave them. They were required to vote for the party candidate even if he had a very thin chance of winning the election. It was just because of this discipline that Muslim League succeeded in winning freedom for the Muslims of India against all odds.
6. What has the writer to say on the Quaid-e-Azam’s charismatic personality?
The Quaid had such a magnetic personality that the people loved to see and hear him. Even in public meetings, a couple of calls would persuade the people to observe a pin-drop silence. He reigned over their hearts and souls. That is why the people observed complete discipline.
Comprehension Questions
Quaid-e-Azam
"The Quaid-e-Azam was no master of languages.”...." he would not hesitate to declare his inability.
Questions with answers
7. How does the write evaluate the linguistic abilities of the Quaid-e-Azam?
The writer suggests that the Quaid-e-Azam did not claim to be a competent scholar of any language. A fastidious person might find fault with his English. However, he was able to express his ideas clearly and in fewer words. In the writer’s opinion, this ability is more important than mastery over technical and grammatical aspects of a language.
8. What rare charismatic quality of the Quaid has been mentioned in the passage? Discuss in your own words.
The Quaid had a magnetic personality which made the people love him. They came to see and hear him in large numbers and observed complete silence in public meetings despite being emotionally excited. He reigned over their hearts and souls.
9. Why would the Quaid forbid his admirers to call him Amir-ul-Momenin?
The Quaid knew his limitations and did not feel any shame in admitting his inability for doing something for which he was not qualified. He knew very well that he was not a spiritual leader of the Muslims. That is why he forbade his admirers to call him Amir-ul-Momenin.
Flight into Karachi "Quaid was resolute and solitary......." This remark is quoted in "Jinnah, the Creator of Pakistan." Narrate the events of next few days.
The Quaid had one last conflict of mind with Lord Mountbatten just before the creation of Pakistan as an independent country. Congress had asked the Viceroy to become their Governor General. Lord Mountbatten expected that Muslim League, too, would extend him the same kind of invitation. But Muslim Leage decided to ask Jinnah to be their first Governor General which annoyed Lord Mountbatten.
The Quaid-e-Azam flew to Karachi on the 7th of August, 1947 to become the first Governor General of Pakistan. On reaching Karachi, he was welcomed by a large number of Muslims at the Airport. The people felt very excited and happy on the occasion of their freedom. They owed to him for their independence and had come to thank him. They cheered as he passed through them. He, however, looked serious and grave. He had no time to rejoice. A new country was being born. There were so many problems to be solved. He felt worried for millions of people who had become homeless. He had always hated violence by nature. Yet the angry crowds would not listen to him. They were killing each other and were destroying property. All this made him feel extremely sad and solitary.
The Quaid was a practical man and so soon after reaching the Government House, he started giving instructions. He ordered that a radio set should be installed immediately as he wanted to hear the news. He examined the Government House and gave orders about the use of each room. He even examined the inventory and discovered that certain items belonging to the House had been taken away. He issued orders for bringing back all such things which were missing.
His presence created lot of excitement and zeal among his followers, though he himself seemed to be unaware of it. In fact, he was reserve by nature and never sought any warm contact with his followers. These were very difficult times requiring all the strength of character and a strong will. A new government was to be established within a very short time despite the fact that there was virtually no furniture or stationery in the rooms of the Government House. Yet the Pakistanis surprised the Europeans by their zeal and determination. Soon tele-phones wires were strung, the rooms furnished and typwriters began to clatter. The Pakistanis had created their own little Whitehall almost overnight. Behind all this enthusiasm was the personality of Quaid-e-Azam.
All that time he was also preparing his speech for the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. He told the people they were free to practice their religion. It did not matter which caste or creed they belonged to; they all were equal citizens of Pakistan. He declared that there would be no distinction in Pakistan on the basis of colour, caste or religion. In fact he was reminding his people the teaching of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) who had declared four-teen hundred years ago the sanctity of human life and equality of all men.
Jinnah repeated his request for tolerance once again at the time of taking oath of his office. However, the people did not pay heed to it at the moment. Being in anger against the cruelty practiced against Muslims in India, they were not in a mood to listen to Jinnah’s advice for goodwell towards the minorities. Violence and killing went on for quite some time before the emotions of anger were appeased and people could understand the spirit behind his appeal. All this made Jinnah very sad. Yet Flight Lt. Rabbani saw a happy Jinnah on the day he was about to give oath to the members of Pakistan cabinet. As the aid reports, it was for the first time that he ever saw a look of happiness on his face.
Comprehension Questions
Flight into Karachi
"While Quaid-e-Azam was caught up in this exasperating care of detail, he was also writing the greatest speech...” (Page 126-line 27) "... these mass passions exhausted themselves and gave reason a chance." (Page 128)
Questions with answers
1. What was the Quaid-e-Azam's view on the role of religion in the State?
Quaid advocated tolerance and wanted the state to be impartial in religious matters. All citizens were to enjoy equal rights irrespective of their religion. To him religion was a personal matter which each citizen had to decide himself in the light of his own conscience.
2. Write on the status of minorities in Pakistan?
3. Are the rights and status of non-Muslims different from those of Muslims in Pakistan? What is the Quaid’s view? What is the actual position today?
In Pakistan, minorities enjoy almost the same status as the Muslims. As citizens of one state, all the people share rights and duties equally irrespective of their cast, colour or creed. There are very few posts which are not open for minorities who in all other matters are independent and can practise their religion and customs as freely as the Muslims.
4. "Quaid's argument was neither comprehended nor needed." What was the Quaid's argument? Why did Pakistanis fail to understand it?
Quaid advised tolerance towards the Hindus and other minorities. However, Muslims were angry on account of killing of their brothers in India. Seeing the miserable conditions of refugees who were compelled to leave their homes, the people were overcome by emotions of revenge and enmity. That is why they were neither willing to nor could they understand the spirit behind his appeal for tolerance. Time was needed before the mass emotions had quelled themselves and allowed reason to prevail.
5. What was the greatest lesson that Quaid-e-Azam learnt from the Holy Prophet?
Among other things, the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) taught equality of all men and preached to his followers to observe religious tolerance. The Quaid learnt these principles from the teachings of the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him).
6. What did Mr. Jinnah and Nehru say and do when the terrible communal riots broke out.
Both Jinnah and Nehru were shocked by the wilful killing and they appealed to the people to show tolerance towards other religious groups among them. Nehru even took the risk of his own life and went among the killers to pacify their emotions of anger.
7. Why does Hector Bolitho describe the above speech of the Quaid-e-Azam as the most important speech of his life?
The Quaid-e-Azam delivered this speech before the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan and it became the foundation for the future constitution of Pakistan. That is why the writer has referred to it as the Quaid’s most important speech.
8. What does the Quaid-e-Azam mean when he says : “Hindus would cease to be Hindus, and Muslims would cease to be Muslims”?
The Quaid suggested that in Pakistan there would be no difference on the basis of caste, colour or creed. All citizens would enjoy equal rights and it would not matter whether they were Muslims or non-Muslims.
9. Does religion have any role to play in politics and state affairs? What is the Quaid-e-Azam’s view? What is your view?
The Quaid believed that religion had nothing got to do with politics. The state was responsible for the welfare and security of all its citizens irrespective of the fact which religion they belonged to. I have the same opinion with regard to role of religion in state affairs. However, religion as a source of inspiration for honesty and benevolence towards all plays an important role though indirectly.
The Death of a Great Man "In poise and dignity ....... when he was attending the Round Table Conference in London". This line has been quoted in preface to "The Death of a Great Man" Describe salient features of Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum's character and his achievements.
Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum was a politician of great eminence. The people in N-W.F.P owe to him for their education. As a founder of Islamia College, it was he who provided a chance of education to the poor people of this province. In fact, he procured the romantic site of the ancient Buddhist University for Islamia College. He also helped the college from his position in the government and took a deep interest in all its matters. He wanted to raise it to the status of a self-contained university. Unfortunately he died before this wish was realised. The college was planning to celebrate its Silver Jubilee in March when the news of his death was heard with great sorrow and grief.
In fact Nawab sahib loved Islamia College and he never missed any opportunity to meet the students, teachers and other staff members. He was like a loving mother who wanted to find out everything that was going on for improvement in there. He attended even the society meetings and was always eager to advance its interests in whatever way possible. Had he lived a little longer, the college would definitely have attained the status of a full university.
Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum also caused many political reforms. The British were reluctant to give full civil rights to the people of India. It was only through his efforts that they were forced to introduce some reforms. In fact, he brought about a synthesis between the English and Pathan practices. As a result, N-W.F.P. later emerged as a centre of politics in India.
Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum was a poor man’s son. It was by sheer merit and ability that he worked his way up. He joined government service as a Naib Tehsildar but at the end of his career was working as acting Political Agent Khyber. He was very intelligent. No one matched his wit and understanding. His speech was always rich in humour and wisdom. He was a humble man and always treated other people with respect. He never talked proudly to anyone. He was courteous and polite in his conversation. It was a pleasure to listen to him. He was very generous and kind-hearted, as well. Many poor people were assisted from his own resources every year. Out of his own property, he gave scholarships to the poor students of his community. Particularly it was because of Islamia College that students from villages got an opportunity to get education. Indeed, Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum was a very kind and generous person and the people of this provinve will never forget him.
A Cold Wind at Kitty Hawk "The Wrights worked slowly, painstakingly, thoroughly ..... a glider was ready for testing". This line is taken from "A Cold Wind at Kitty Hawk." Narrate the invention and testing of the first flying machine by Wright Brothers.
Man's desire to fly like birds is indeed thousands of years old. However, this dream was realised only in the recent past. Men flew in balloons, gliders and then in the airships. Orvill Wright, however, was the first to fly in an aeroplane. In fact, they learnt a great deal from the failures of others.
Many people had died in the experiments before flight became possible. Among them, the death of Lilienthal was particularly tragic. When his glider was caught in a gust of wind and crashed to the ground, he had flown dozens of times. The news of Otto's death was heard with great concern by the two brothers who were deeply interested in his experiments.
The Wrights were working for the development of aeroplane. They did not want to risk their own lives by trying unreliable gliders. Instead, they collected all the available information about experiments by others and arranged it properly. Then they made a detailed study to find the cause for failure of these attempts. In the light of this data, they designed and built three gliders. In the last one, they made several flights in order to gain expert knowledge about the laws of aerodynamics. They found out that gliders were unsafe because they were not protected against overturning. To solve this problem, they designed movable wings which could be adjusted during flight to suit to the wind conditions.
The Wright Brothers were constantly working on their machine and improving its design in the light of their new experiments. They had built even a wind tunnel to check air pressure. All summer they worked in their bicycle shop in Dayton while during the winter they took their machines to Kitty Hawk to test them. They worked really hard as well as throughly, and within three years of Otto’s death they had designed and buit their flying machine with adjustable wings.
On 17th of December 1903, they were prepared for the last attempt. If they did not succeed this time, they were going to give up for good. However, their skill and labour brought them success. On this historic day, it was Orvill's turn to fly the machine. It was a strange experience. The pilot lay on the left side of the lower wing while the engine was placed on the right. Wilbur was running along and holding on to the wing to keep it even. Soon the machine lifted ten feet into the air and covered a distance of fifty feet in twelve seconds. In the fourth and last attempt Wilbur made it fly for 858 feet in one minute. In a humble way, the history of aviation started that day.
It was after a surprisingly long time that the real importance of their invention was realised. The story of their success at Kitty Hawk was published in "Scientific Journal" two years later. In the meantime, they had taken their aeroplane to France, where the crowd was overcome with emotions to watch them fly their aeroplane. But it was much later that they made a demonstration flight for the American Government.
Anything a Horse can Do "Helicopters as toys were known to the ancient Chinese". This sentence has been taken from "Anything a Horse Can Do". Relate the story of Sikorsky and his invention of helicopter.
From his early youth, Sikorsky was interested in flying. He actually began with the idea to build a helicopter as early as 1909. He had brought an engine from Paris which he fitted to a wooden box but the machine failed to rise into the air. When one more attempt also failed, he understood that he still needed a lot more information about aerodynamics. He gave up the idea altogether and decided to build an aeroplane instead. By the summer of 1910, he had made himself a machine in which he experienced the dreamlike magic of flying for the first time in his life.
In 1911, he made another flying machine which could fly 1500 feet high in the air. This gave him an idea to build a large aeroplane. He put the suggestion before the Director of the railway wagon factory. Quite unexpected the director agreed to finance the scheme. Sikorsky immediately set to work and by 1913 he had made his first passenger plane. Then World War I began and he had to build a whole fleet of four-engined bombers for the Russian Army. Being the only bombers of that size they, too, made a history in war.
After the socialist revolution, Russia was passing through a severe economic crisis and Sikorsky decided to migrate to and settle in the Unites States of America. Within next few years, he had become one of the greatest aircraft designers. His S-48, completed in 1931, was the first American clipper that crossed the Atlantic. It seemed as if he had forgotten all his former interest in helicopters. During his youth he had bitterly failed in his attempt. Yet it was the greatest ambition of his youth and he had not yet given up the idea for ever.
After a lapse of about thirty years, he decided to continue his efforts again. Up till now, he had been reading about other people's attempts to build helicopters. However, no one had really succeeded so far. Success was perhaps waiting for Sikorsky. Once again he collected his previous threads, and soon in 1914, his machine was ready to be tested. Strangely enough, the machine rose straight into the air. The four months trial flights, too, did not face any problems.
At the end of trial period, a display was arranged for army officers. The pilot made the helicopter hover in the air and picked up a ring from the top of an eight foot pole. It gently placed a bag with a dozen raw eggs on a pre-arranged spot. A man on the ground climbed into it with the help of rope ladder. The officers were amazed to see the pilot performing all these stunts. It was certainly a singular achievement of Sikorsky and was a valuable addition to the contributions he had made to aviation earlier. In this way, his invention proved itself the best servant of mankind.
The First Man in Space "They took him up in a supersonic jet .... for .a parachute drop. He asked ‘What am I to do this time.’ Narrate the training given to Yuri Gagarin.
Yuri Gagarin was the first man who went into the space. However, it was not an unearned honour. He underwent a severe training to become a space-man. His training consisted of many items. He prepared himself for the strain and tension in the face of extreme pressure of gravity and total loss of weight. He had to show presence of mind and prove that he could operate the spaceship under all circumstances. He went into the space but only after he had satisfied his superiors about his endurance, ability and intelligence
Gagarin underwent the most difficult test and trials for this purpose. At the same time these tests served as a training to prepare him for the journey into the space. He was dropped from great heights to descend with the help of a parachute. Sometimes, he was asked not to open the parachute till he reached dangerously near the earth. At other times, he was made to spin in the air. It was called a corkscrewed drop. He had to stop the spinning of his body by using certain tactics.
Next he was locked in a room with a very high temperature. While he was sweating due to heat, he was asked to operate various instruments on a control panel. Then he was fastened on the vibration table where his body was shaken at a painfully high speed. In another test, Gagarin was locked in a room. The air was pumped out while he was asked to write his name. He had written his name only once when he started losing his senses. He came to senses when the air was pumped back but he could not remember losing consciousness. Though they were quite satisfied with him, yet the tests were not over. Now they tied him on centrifuge, a machine which spun him round at a very high speed. This made the muscles of his face twist and he found it extremely difficult to shut his eyes. During this time, too, he had to show that he could use both his hands and eyes. He was asked to watch the figures appearing on a lighted screen and remember them. Then he was subjected to memory tests and was asked to solve arithmetic sums while a voice tried to trap him by giving false answers.
Even then it was not over. Next he was taken up in a supersonic aeroplane and was flown in a curve at a very high speed. For forty seconds he felt as if he had lost his weight completely. During this period, too, he had to perform several operations. After many months' training he was finally ready to go into space.
Yuri Gagarin was the first man to go into space. As the rockets carried his spaceship into space, he felt extreme pressure on his body. Anyhow his training had prepared him for it. His ship travel around the whole earth. He remained in the space for about 109 minutes.
Direct Energy from the Sun "We know that all the energy that mankind has ever used comes from the sun ....... Yet we are only now beginning to use that inexhaustible source of energy in the sky directly." Narrate the various devices invented by man to trap and utilise heat of the sun and generate electricity.
In modern age, energy has become very important for development. The countries that have more of it are certainly more advanced than the ones with less of it. Scientists are, therefore, looking for the resources that could meet the needs of the world. The scientists have found out that heat and light of the sun can be trapped and used for this purpose. As a result, many devices have been invented which have enabled man to make a direct use of the solar energy.
One such device is solar water-heater. It is quite simple. A coil of pipes is placed on the roof and covered with a glass pane. The water circulates through pipes. When the water is heated, it is pumped into the hot water tank. The house then takes from it the hot water supply for use.
Another complicated device is the solar heat pump. The heat of the sun is made to act on a liquid with a very low boiling point. The liquid changes into vapours which in turn pass through a condenser coil and turn again into water. The heat released in this process is then used for keeping the house warm.
One more useful device is the solar cooker which uses the heat of the sun for cooking. It consists of a concave aluminium reflector four and a half feet across which is mounted on an iron rod. The concentrated rays of the sun fall on the pot on a wire mesh holder which is attached to the reflector.
In some countries solar houses have been built. The heat of the sun is made to act on Glauber salt. It melts at 90 F. In the cold season the salt starts freezing and in this way releases the heat stored by it. This heat keeps the house comfortably warm. In some houses, gravel stones are fixed in the space between two walls. During the day they get hot while in the cool night they start releasing heat which warms the house.
Another important device is solar still which is used for distillation of fresh water from salt water. The water in container turns into vapour with the heat of sun. As the vapour pass through the sloping glass roof, they turn into water which is collected in a fresh water container. The salt remaining behind is equally useful.
A solar lamp has also been designed. It consists of a collector panel with a few dozen photo-sensitive cells on the top of a suitcase. There is an accumulator inside which stores the current produced by the solar cells. During the day the device is put into the sun-light and at night a tube-light which is fixed on the underside of the suit-case gives light for a few hours.
In France very large solar furnaces are being used on experimental basis. Mirrors reflect the heat on to the furnaces. In one such furnace, 130 pound of iron is melted every hour with the help of heat from the sun. In Russia, huge solar boilers are being operated. The superheated steam is enough to run a turbo-generator with 1000 kW output.
The scientist have also suggested that if forests of quick growing trees are planted, these can provide a permanent source of burning wood for the boilers of medium sized power stations. The most useful device, however, is the solar battery which is now being used in space exploration.
Comprehension Questions
Direct Energy from the Sun
“The most primitive device for catching and trapping the heat of the sun……” Page ……. of East and West. “with the heat collected in the summer.” Page ……..
Questions with Answers
1. State in your own words the mechanism of solar water-heater.
The solar water-heater collects heat from the sun. Usually a coil of pipes is placed in a shallow box on the roof-top. The box is fixed into black concrete. The water is made to circulate through the pipes. The hot water is then pumped into a water tank. The household is supplied its hot water needs from this tank.
2. What is a solar house, and what role does Glauber’s salt play in its operation?
A solar house is the one which is built in such a way that it is kept warm during winter with the heat from the sun collected in the summer. Usually some medium is used for storing the heat of the sun and then releasing it gradually according to the need. Glauber salt is a very efficient medium for this purpose. In large containers, tons of glauber salt are stored in the cellar of the solar house. During the summer it melts with the heat of the sun. In winter it turns again into its original crystal form and as such releases the stored heat. This heat can be used for keeping the house warm during the cold season.
3. How does a heat pump heat a house and provide hot water? Discuss
A heat pump collects the heat from atmosphere and uses it for converting a liquid (usually one with a low boiling point) into gas. This in turn is made to pass through a condenser coil which acts as a compressor. As a result the gas is turned into liquid state again. The heat so released can be used for providing hot water to the household or for heating the house.
Pavlov "The work which Pavlov had been doing on digestion now led him…" Describe the experiments and discoveries that Pavlov made.
Pavlov was a great Russian scientist who made outstanding contributions in the field of biology. Most of his research work was later published by the Russian Government, an English translation of which appeared as "Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes. He proved that most of the human actions which were formerly believed to be under man's conscious control are really the result of conditioned reflexes. His experiments showed that digestive juice starts with the mere sight of food. The flow of digestive juice in this case is an example of reflex action. The sight of food, on the other hand, serves as a stimulus for the flow. He also proved that some of these actions can be caused by artificial means. Such actions are actually 'acquired behaviours' and, therefore, should be called conditioned reflexes. Through experiments on dogs, he proved that if an animal was pricked, or tickled at the time it was given food, then after some time this act itself caused the flow of digestive juice. In other words the animal learnt it as an indication of food and now even if the food was not present, this act alone served as a stimulus for the reflex action of producing digestive juice. Such a stimulus is now known as unusual stimulus and the reflexes caused by them are called conditioned reflexes. Pavlov proved that many different kinds of stimuli could be developed through experiments and that it was the work of one particular part of the brain (the cerebral hemisphere) to set up such stimuluses.
Pavlov also managed to describe the nature of sleep to some extent. In fact it was quite by chance that he started this field of inquiry. He was doing experiments on a dog and, reaching late for it, he found that the dog was sleeping. It seemed obvious that the sleep was caused by the very conditions of experiment. This made him start a research on the nature of sleep. Eventually Pavlov succeeded in explaining sleep in terms of several reflex actions.
He also worked on a condition in dogs which is similar to so called nervous break-down in human beings. After several experiments, he was able to prove that the cause for this disease was in the body rather than in the mind. In fact, Pavlov proved that the cause for many mental diseases was in the body while it was supposed before him that these diseases were caused by some trouble in the brain. It was only a partial success, yet it paved the way for further research in this field in future.
Pavlov was a simple and hardworking man. He continued his research during very hard times. During the food shortage, he shared his own meal with his dogs. When trams stopped during the war, he went to his laboratory on bicycle. He worked in candle light when electricity failed. He grew vegetables and worked personally in his garden. All his life, he was punctual to the second in his daily activities which were performed like a fixed routine. It was because of this hard discipline that he continued his research to the end of his life. In the last ten years of his life, he was the head of three large research departments.
Comprehension Questions
Pavlov
"The work which Pavlov had been doing on digestion ... The sight of food gives the animal ........” (Page 169 - line 1) ........ ".. smaller part in the action of animals and men than is normally supposed. "(Page 172 - line 14)
Questions with answers
1. What is a reflex action?
There are many actions in both men and animals which are not under the conscious control of the living organism. In fact, these are performed machine-like by the body in responses to a stimulus. Such actions are known as reflex actions. Some examples are the beating of the heart, winking of eyes, certain types of allergy of eyes and skin etc.
2. What is the difference between "a reflex action" and "a conditioned reflex action?"
A conditioned reflex action is caused by an unusual stimulus acquired through experience, whereas a normal reflex action is not acquired but is inborn in nature. However both are machine-like and automatic responses to a stimulus whether it is an unusual or ordinary one.
3. What part does the nervous system play in determining human and animal responses? 4. What conclusion is drawn from his experiments?
From Pavlov’s experiments, it may be deduced that in human actions, the conscious mind plays much less important role than what was previously believed. It also showed that a particular part of the mind sets up these conditioned reflexes.
5. Give examples of "unusual stimuli" that resulted in a flow of digestive juice in the dog.
Pavlov used various unusual stimuli to cause the flow of digestive juice without food being present before the animal. These included the ringing of a bell, flashing of a light or pricking the dog's skin every time the food was given to it. These experiments proved that after some time the animals associated these acts with the giving of food. The same now served as a stimulus for starting the flow of digestive juice independent of the normal stimulus of the sight of food.
6. What did Pavlov do to stop the flow of digestive juice and with what success?
Pavlov wanted to use the same stimulus for opposite results. His experiments now aimed at using these very stimuli for drying the digestive juice. In other words he wanted the organism to stop producing the digestive juice while the food was placed before the animal. However, we are not told whether or not Pavlov succeeded in his experiments.
Iqbal's Message “Communalism, in its higher aspect, is then indispensable to the formation of a harmonious whole in India.” This line has been taken from the presidential address of Iqbal at Allahabad in 1930. Write in your words what did Iqbal say about the formation of a consolidate Muslim State in India.
In his address to the annual session of the Muslim league held at Allahabad in 1930, Iqbal pointed out that India was not one nation. Here the units were not based on territory as in European countries. In fact, the situation here was quite different as India was a continent of human groups which belonged to different races and different ethnic or religious groups. Their social behaviour was not determined by a common race consciousness. Even the Hindus did not entirely consist of one race as the low caste Hindus were not treated on equal terms by the Brahmins. In such a case, it would prove extremely dangerous to solve the problems of India without giving rights to all the major human groups. The Western type of democracy which is based on the assumption of territorial units would not solve the problem and it would fail completely. It would not and could not succeed unless an equal right of self government was given to the Muslims in those areas where they enjoyed majority.
Iqbal expressed his belief that the Consolidated Muslim state consisting of Muslim majority provinces of Punjab, Sindh, N-W.F.P and Bluchistan had now become the destiny of Indian Muslims. He refuted the claim made in the Nehru committee that such a state would fail to provide full protection to the minorities. Though larger in area as compared to some of Indian provinces, it would be far less in population. Iqbal proposed that Ambala Division and some other districts with Hindu majority be excluded from this state. As a result, its area would also become less and there being a much smaller number of non-Muslims, it could easily provide protection to the minorities. He pointed out that Muslims from these parts served in British Army and police. In fact, the British rule in this country was made possible because of them. After the creation of a Muslim state, they would prove even better guardians of India. They would protect it against any attack from outside and would defend the country against any threats to her cultural heritage, as well.
Allama Iqbal clarified the role of such a state. The British and the Hindus did not need to fear that a separate Muslim state would result in a kind of religious rule there. Islam does not believe in the government of a religious hierarchy like that practised by the Church in Medieval Europe. Islam conceives state as an organism based on contract. The people living within a Muslim state enjoy full rights irrespective of the fact which religion or caste they belong to. He gave an example how in the past the Muslim states did not impose restrictions on official rates of interest despite the fact that Islam clearly forbids the realisation of interest on loans.
Iqbal suggested that the creation of a separate state for the Muslims would enable the Indian Muslims to develop their own culture freely. It would give Islam real opportunity to get rid of the negative elements imposed upon it by Arab Imperialism. It was also in the interest of India as it would create peace and stability within India as a result of an internal balance of power between Muslims and other communities.
2. "Those phenomena are the premonitions of a coming storm. This is the inevitable outcome of a political civilisation which has looked upon man as a thing to be exploited and not as a personality to be enlarged....". Give the main points of Iqbal's speech (in 1932) to the Muslim Conference.
3. "Presiding over the session of Muslim Conference in 1932, Iqbal elaborated the programme for the Muslims of the subcontinent if they desired to lead an honourable life free to follow their own ideals." This line has been taken from "Iqbal's Message". What was Iqbal's programme?
Iqbal had deeply studied the situation in India. His insight made him predict what was going to happen in India in the coming years. He analysed the main cause of the Muslim's down-fall. In fact it was through his insight, that the Muslims knew not only the cause for their malady but also as the cure for it.
In his presidential address at the session of Muslim Conference, Iqbal warned the Muslims about the coming storm. He pointed out that the British rule in India and elsewhere was doomed. Peoples of Asia and Africa couldn't accept the Western civilisation which was based on exploiting other nations. The west had looked upon man as a thing to be exploited. It ignored the need to develop his personality by cultural forces. Whatever was happening in different British colonies was a warning against this inhuman approach.
Iqbal pointed out that the West believed in the right of private ownership. A man could collect as much wealth as he wished. There was no responsibility on him towards the society. This thinking was entirely against the temperament of Asia. Iqbal explained how Islam gives rights to the individual but also disciplines him to spend all his wealth in serving mankind. Islam does not allow wealth to be circulated in a small circle. It believes that wealth cannot create anything. Value of human efforts in producing wealth is so great that it should not ignored as is done in Western economic system. Iqbal suggested that Islam still possessed the potentials of improving their living conditions. It can still create a society in which all people are treated as equal irrespective of their riches. In an Islamic society, the social rank of a man is determined on the basis of his moral conduct and not by his caste, colour or the profit that he makes in business.
He analysed the condition of Indian Muslims and suggested that a return to the purity of Islam was the only cure for all their ills. The Muslims had imprisoned themselves into a prison of false beliefs and customs that were not based on the original teaching of Islam. These thoughts and emotions that they had come to believe indispensable, were really woven round them over the centuries as a result of their passive attitude to the problems of daily lives. They had even failed to prepare their young generation for the coming economic, political and religious crises. The Muslims had stopped exploring the depth of their inner beings. They had forgotten to feel the urge of rash desires and ideals. If they examined their daily lives in the light of their ideals, once again they would become strong. Iqbal told the Muslims that the flame of life cannot be borrowed from others. It must be kindled in the temple of one's soul. The Muslims must not rely on others for help. They should depend only on their own efforts.
4. "A separate federation of the Muslim provinces ........... is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India to save the Muslims from the domination of non-Muslims". Reproduce the arguments advanced by Dr. Iqbal in his letter to the Quaid-e-Azam in support of his proposal for a separate homeland for the Muslims of India.
Iqbal was a man of deep insight with a thorough understanding of the situation in India. In his letter to the Quaid-e-Azam, he told him about his opinion with regards to the solution to the political and economic problems of Indian Muslims. In fact his letter of 1937 was in line with his arguments that Iqbal had already communicated to the Quaid in his letter of 1931. In that letter he had claimed that after a long and careful study he had come to the conclusion that the enforcement of Islamic laws could secure the right of basic needs to everyone in India including both Muslims and other communities. However, without a free Muslim state, it was simply impossible to enforce and develop the Shariat of Islam in India. The only course left open for the Muslims in such a case was to demand a separate country for them where they could freely develop and practice Islamic laws.
Iqbal was of the opinion that Muslim majority provinces should form a federation as only in this way the Muslims could be saved from the domination of non-Muslims. In his opinion it would solve not only the economic problems of Muslims but it would also bring internal peace and harmony to India. However, if such a solution was not accepted by the British and other parties, the result would be a civil war. Iqbal believed that Hindu-Muslim riots in themselves were a kind of civil war that had been going on for quite some time. He feared that in some parts of the country particularly North West India, the situation would not be much different from that in Palestine.
Iqbal further pointed out that Jawaharlal’s concept of socialism was going to cause much bloodshed among the Hindus themselves. It was obvious that Brahmins would not accept the right of equality by the lower castees. He reminded the Quaid how Buddhism had failed in India for the same reason. He was not sure what would be the fate of socialism but he could clearly see that for Hinduism it was impossible to accept social democracy. On the other hand it would be a return to the original spirit of Islam if social democracy was accepted in some suitable form consistent with its legal principles.
In 1931 letter, Iqbal emphasised upon the Quaid-e-Azam to give serious considerations to this proposal. In his opinion it was the best answer that the Quaid could give to Jawaharlal’s atheistic socialism. In other words, Nehru was to be told that Muslims did not need to act on his proposal as their own religion had a solution for the current problems. He suggested to the Quaid that time had come for Muslims to demand a separate country for them.
Comprehension Questions
Iqbal’s Message
"The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim India is therefore perfectly justified." (Page 175) . "... autonomous Muslim states will mean the introduction of a kind of religious rule in such states." (Page 177)
questions with answers
1. How was the creation of a consolidated Muslim state in north-west India advantageous to India?
The creation of an independent Muslim state was going to result in an internal balance of power. This in turn would bring peace and security to India which was and is always a need for progress and prosperity.
2. How would such a state benefit the Muslims?
If the Muslims had their own independent state, they would have an opportunity to integrate their faith with the latest scientific knowledge. They could mobilise their laws, education and customs bringing them all in closer contact with the original spirit of Islam as well as the spirit of modern times. It would also provide a centre to Islamic culture and enable it to get rid of the un-Islamic elements which were really a legacy of the Arab imperialism.
3. What objection did Motilal Nehru have to the formation of a consolidated Muslim state in north-west India? What reply did Iqbal give?
The Nehru Committee rejected the proposal on the ground that such a state would be too large in area and population. As such it would not be in a position to provide security to the minorities. Iqbal pointed out that the Muslims from these regions served in army and police. In fact these people had made possible the British rule in India. It was quite natural to expect that they would work with even greater sense of duty for their own country. Moreover, Ambala division and some districts with Hindu majority might be excluded from this state to further decrease the number of non-Muslims. In this way the Muslim state could protect them more effectively.
4. What was the ideal which inspired the Muslims to demand a Muslim state or states within India?
According to Iqbal the demand was inspired by the wish to bring peace and security to India. This was not possible as long as there was no internal balance of power between Muslims and Hindus.
5. What did Iqbal say to remove the fears and suspicions of the Hindus regarding the creation of autonomous Muslim states?
Iqbal pointed out that Islam did not believe in Papacy or the rule by religious scholars. Islam believes in social contract and the non-Muslims living within a Muslim state enjoy full civil rights. Nothing is going to be imposed on them against their wishes. As an example he referred to the practice of Muslim states in India which did not put any restrictions on regulating the rates of interest despite the fact that Islam forbids charging interest on loans.
Comprehension Questions
Iqbal’s Message
"These phenomena, however, are merely pre-monitions of a coming storm which is likely to sweep over whole of India." (Page 178 - line 2) .... "This is the whole secret of individual and collective life." (Page 179 - line 25)
Questions with answers
6. Dr. Iqbal has given three reasons for rejecting capitalism. What are those reasons?
Capitalism is totally against the spirit of Islam. It considers man as merely a thing to be exploited and not as a personality to be developed by cultural forces. Secondly it values material wealth as an end and gives no importance to the moral and spiritual values. Finally it gives unlimited and unrestrained freedom to the individual. Although Islam also recognises the worth of individual, it teaches it followers to serve humanity.
7. Describe the features of Islamic social order.
1In Islam, there is no distinction on the basis of colour, caste or amount of riches. All men are equal and the social rank is decided by the piety of character. 2It teaches us that private property is a trust and we are accountable for it. 3Islam creates a society in which taxes are levied on rich for the benefit of the poor. Then 4Islam does not allow wealth to accumulate in a few hands or to dominate the real producers of wealth. 5Moreover, in Islamic society, the bond of cohesion is based on equality of spirit and 6there is no ban on the marriage of even a slave with the daughter of the king.
8. Iqbal says: "This superb idealism of your faith needs emancipation from the medieval fancies of the theologians and legists." Explain.
We need to recognise between essential elements of Islam and different theories of theologians of Middle Ages. The later are not an integral part of Islam. These are often doing us harm. It is essential for us that we find our own solution to the problems of modern times in the light of Islamic teachings and principles.
9. What, according to Allama Iqbal, is a pre-requisite for changing an unjust social order?
Iqbal believes that outer circumstances of a society do not change unless the people of the society undergo a complete transformation of their inner life. They must examine their daily activities in the light of their aims and ideals. This habit keeps their eyes fixed on their goal and saves them from unmanly compromise with the forces of evil and injustice.
10. Explain the following maxims, bringing out the difference between the two:
a) "He who has steel has bread." (Mussolini)
b) "He who is steel has everything" (Iqbal)
Mussolini suggests that if a nation has weapons, it does not need to fear starvation. They can seize food for themselves from weaker nations. Iqbal approaches the issue in a different manner. He does not believe in material gains. He advises the Muslims to be firm and strong in their faith. This conviction will give them the courage to defy injustice or tyranny in any form. Then not only their material needs will be fulfilled but they will also have spiritual satisfaction and peace of mind.
Comprehension Questions
Iqbal’s Message
"After a long and careful study of Islamic law, I have come to the conclusion ........”(Page 180) ....... " Perhaps this is the best reply you can give to the atheistic socialism of Jawahar-lal Nehru." (Page 181)
Questions with answers
11. Why did Dr. Iqbal consider the establishment of an independent Muslim state extremely necessary for the progress and economic well-being of Muslims?
Iqbal had come to the conclusion that if Islamic laws were enforced, it could secure the right to basic needs of everyone. As such the application of Islamic laws was the best and only solution to the problem of Indian Muslims. However, the Shariat of Islam could not be enforced unless there was a free Muslim state. That is why he held it essential for the prosperity and well-being of the Muslims to have their independent state.
12. What does Iqbal mean when he says "I fear that in certain parts of India Palestine may be repeated?”
At that time a civil war was going on in Palestine between the Jews and Muslims. Iqbal warned that such a situation could occur in India, as well. The Muslims and Hindus were already at war against each other in the form of communal riots. This situation could become worse and result in a civil war.
13. "The issue between social democracy and Brahminism is not dissimilar to the one between Brahminism and Buddhism". Explain.
Both social democracy and Buddhism believe in equality of all men. Brahminism, on the other hand, is based on distinction of race and birth. It divides human beings in classes giving some a superior status on the basis of birth. Buddhism was opposed by Brahminism and so it failed in India. The same might happen again if social democracy was introduced among Hindus.
14. Do you agree with Iqbal's view that social democracy is not opposed to the teachings of Islam?
There is a great similarity between both of them in their attitude towards individual. In fact, equality of all men is a major principle of both Islam and democracy. It seems a fair deduction to say that Islam is not averse to the idea of social democracy.
15. What according to Iqbal, was the best reply that the Quaid-e-Azam could give to the atheistic socialism of Jawaharlal Nehru?
The best reply on the part of Muslims was to demand a separate country organised on the principle of social democracy in some suitable form. In fact, Nehru's attempt to introduce atheistic socialism was a negative as well as extremely harmful approach in a country like India. It was dangerous to deny the importance of religion where the vast majority believed in one or other creed.
The Pakhtuns "Pakhtunwali is not without nobility", says Peter Mayne in "The Narrow smile". According to him, what are the chief characteristics of Pakhtunwali?
The fact is that the historian and anthropoligists differ among themselves about the origin of Pakhtuns. Some trace them to the Pakti tribe mentioned by the Greek historian, Herodotus. Others claim that the lost tribes of Israelite can be found among the Pakhtuns. However, there is no evidence one way or the other. Peter Mayne has, therefore, supposed certain things about the Pakhtuns in order to justify his opinion how the concept of Pakhtunwali emerged among them in the first place and what form it did take later on.To start with he assumes that the Pakhtuns came to these hills on different waves of migration and that they were widely varied in origin. Moreover he assumes that these tribes were weaker when they came here; otherwise they would not have settled in these ragged and barren mountains where, despite their cultivable valleys, life on the whole is very hard. These lead to another assumption that Pakhtun tribes remained on war with each other having disputes over grazing lands, waters and the like. The result was that only hard and tough tribes occupied the fertile valleys. Then for various reasons, the tribes had to travel through the territory of others. It became necessary for them to adopt a kind of code to be practised by all. This code was known as Pakhtunwali and it has three principles. Firstly, all who need should be given food and shelter. Secondly, those that demand must be given protection against their enemies. Lastly an encroachment on one's rights must be repulsed.
Peter Mayne concedes the point that “Pakhtunwali is not without nobility even if it springs from violence and mistrust.” However, he claims that the code itself came into being due to hositility among the Pakhtun tribes and their constant mistrust and suspicion of each other. He believes that Pakhtuns do not allow anyone to speak for them. They have no spokesman and no leader. They cannot unite for a single common cause unless it offers an immediate and concrete advantage that can be equally shared by all. He mentions how Khushal Khan Khattak, an eminent Pashto poet, failed to unite them against the Mughal empror Aurangzeb. According to the writer, Khushal Khan had managed to enjoy the favour of Pakhtun mercenaries just because he could buy them with the Mughal gold. But later on, as a fugitive from Mughal prison, he was no longer accepted as a leader even by his son Behram Khan.
The writer believes that Pakhtun do not accept the superiority of anyone among them as there is often no agreement between the sons and their father. That is why during the British reign, maliks or other such leaders invented for them by the foreigners could not compel them to submission. They obeyed such leaders only to the extent of their personal advantages. Now that Pakistanis have come to rule the situation has not changed much as far as the tougher of the independent Pakhtuns are concerned.
2. What does Peter Mayne say of Pakhtun's notion of invincibility?
Peter Mayne claims that there is a false notion among the Pakhtuns that they cannot be subdued. In his opinion this notion has grown over the centuries. When an invader passed through their country on his way to India, they assumed that he failed to conquer them. The fact is that there was no charm for these invaders in the barren hills. They just wanted to reach the rich lands of India which was like a gold mine for the greedy; as such they tried to pass through these passes as quickly as possible. On the part of these invaders no serious attempt was ever made to subdue the Pakhtuns living in the impassable mountains. On the other hand, most of the Pakhtuns living in the plains were easily conquered by the Sikhs and later by the British. Those tribes who remained free managed to do so just because they lived in remote and impassable mountains. As such there is no truth in the Pakhtun's notion of their invincibility.
Then, as the writer further remarks, such freedom was maintained at the cost of extreme poverty. The writer can see no point in maintaining freedom at the cost of extreme misery and he believes that this fact is now generally recognised by the Pakhtuns themselves, particularly the plainsmen Pakhtuns. In his opinion, those Pakhtuns were lucky who were defeated by the invaders as they are leading a much better life.
On the basis of these so called facts, the writer makes a distinction between the two types of Pakhtuns. He uses the term Pakhtuns for only those tribes who live in the free mountains on either side of the Durand Line. On the other hand, the plainsmen tribes, who were conquered by various invaders and who as a result are now much prosperous, are referred to as the Pathans so as to distinguish them from the independent tribes living on either side of the Durand line. These consist of the tribes living as protectorate of Pakistan and Afghanistan respectively. In fact, The creation of Pakistan has brought no change in this situation. These independent tribes are well aware of their importance and have relations with both Pakistan and Afghanistan. Their geographical position has enabled them to enjoy favours from both sides and yet remain free from the political influence of both Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Pakhtuns enjoyed this special status during British rule and they still hold this political trump card when Pakistanis replaced the British.
Comprehension Questions
Pakhtuns
“I had never been to the Bugti country.” ……. … ……… “The tribes play the political game instead of football, and with unorthodox brilliance.”
Questions with answers
1. What basic difference does the writer point out in the nature of the Baluch and that of the Pakhtun tribes?
The Pakhtuns are by nature a wild and unruly people. They do not believe in the wisdom of any one else. Every Pakhtun is his own leader and admits no one’s superiority. Baluch, unlike the Pakhtuns are at the disposal of their leaders and obey them unconditionally. They act accoring to the will of their tribal leaders.
2. Why were the British not so successful in subjugating the Pakhtun tribes as they were in subjugating the Baluch tribes?
The Baluch followed into the fold of British Government on the suggestion of their tribal leaders. The Pakhtuns, however, had misgivings about the wisdom or superiority of the so called leaders imposed by the British Government. The refused to follow the orders of such leaders until the British had the power to impose their orders. As such the Pakhtuns could not be brought under British control just through these self-arrogated leaders.
3. Why is it difficult for the Pakhtuns to unite as a whole?
The writer claims that Pakhtuns unite for such a cause which is sure to bring concrete and equal reward for all. They do not believe in the enlightment of tribal leaders and do not admit anyone’d superiority. As such it is extremely difficult for Pakhtuns to unite as a whole.
Comprehension Questions
Pakhtuns
"So who are the Pakhtuns? .. I choose to believe those who say that none of the Pakhtun..” (Page 196) "... and they all go in their own way in consequence."
Questions with answers
4. What is the origin of Pakhtuns?
The writer believes that the Pakhtuns came to this part of the world in various waves of migration. He also thinks that the Pakhtuns are not one nation but widely varied in origin.
5. What prevents the Pakhtuns from becoming a strong political force?
There is no unity between the different Pakhtun tribes. No one admits the superiority of others. There are differences within sections of a tribe and often in each home. The fact is that every Pakhtun thinks of himself as the sole leader of Pakhtuns. The result is that no one accepts the leadership of anyone else.
6. What light does Pakhtunwali throw on Pakhtun character and life?
It clearly indicates that the Pakhtuns are men of honour. Not only are they hospitable but also generous in many situations. However, Pakhtuns do not make any compromise on their rights. If anyone transgresses their rights they are bound to retaliate.
7. What has the author said to show that the Pakhtuns are extreme individualists?
The author says that there is no unity even among the members of a family. Sometimes there are conflicts of opinion even between sons and their fathers. They have individual ways of thinking and will not accept the view point of anyone else.
8. What are the most admirable qualities in the Pakhtuns' character and way of life?
The Pakhtuns are brave people and throughout their known history have never hesitated to offer any sacrifice for the sake of their freedom. They are men of honour & protect their enemy if he requests for shelter.
Comprehension Questions
The Pakhtuns
"By the turn of the century it all looked quite nice on paper - a sort of Neapolitan ice-cream” (Page 200) ... ".. that the status quo had been assured"(Page 201)
Questions with answers
9. What does "Neapolitan ice-cream" mean? To what phenomena is Peter Mayne referring?
Neapolitan ice-cream has several layers, each with a different colour and flavour. In the given context it is used to suggest that the Pakhtuns as a nation have three separate political divisions. Those who live in N-WFP and Baluchistan are referred to as Pathans and they are Pakistanis. The second division is of those who are under the protection of Pakistan but are, in fact, as independent as is the third group of them living in the mountains of Afghanistan.
10. What was the status of Pakhtuns in Afghanistan?
The Pakhtun tribes living in Afghan mountains were independent of the Afghanistan government.
11. How did the Pakhtuns react to the departure of the British and the creation of Pakistan?
According to the writer, Pakhtuns were realists as well as opportunists. They tried to have better relations with both Afghanistan and Pakistan after the departure of the British from India. Therefore, they sent their tribes-men to the new government with good wishes for their success and in return were assured of the benefits and allowances they were receiving beforfe.
12. What kind of relationship do the Pakhtuns have with Pakistan on the one hand and Afghanistan?
The Pakhtuns have very good relations with both the governments. In fact, they ignore the Durand Line in their daily lives and do not belong to either Pakistan or Afghanistan. However, they have great political wisdom and, in no case, would like to miss a chance of enjoying benefits from either side.
13. What gives the Pakhtuns their strong position and bargaining power?
The Pakhtuns are independent of both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Moreover, they occupy the inaccessible mountains between the two countries and could cause much trouble for them. As such neither of the countries can risk annoying them or losing their good-well.
Responsibilities of Youth "Now that we have achieved our goal ..... namely one of the greatest states in the world." Reproduce in your own words the advice given by the Quaid to the students of Islamia College.
In his address to the students of Islmai College, the Quaid mentioned how the student community, and particularly the students of N-W.F.P had played a very important role in the struggle for Pakistan. The people of this province had given their unmistakable decision in favour of joining Pakistan and the students had done a great deal of canvassing for this purpose. In fact, both the students and people of this province had never lagged behind other provinces in the struggle for Pakistan. Having acquired their own country now the students would definitely wish to make Pakistan one of the greatest states in the world. As such, they would welcome a bit of advice from him as to how this glorious aim could be achieved.
The Quaid-e-Azam pointed out to them how the situation had changed from the past. Previously, it was a foreign government which they wanted to change but now it was their own government. It was quite natural to have a different approach now. Then they were critical of the government but now they were supposed to co-operate with and help the government in solving their problems. He warned against negative politics. It was time for constructive criticism and not of agitation and protests which they had recourse to when there was a foreign governemnt.
Moreover the students could help a great deal with their constructive criticism. Some people for their selfish reasons might aim at creating disunity. But their efforts should aim at bringing peace and stability to the country. He reminded the students that now that they were free, their first and foremost duty was to develop a sound sense of discipline. They must take advantage of their stay in the college and equip themselves for the future duties. They owed it to their parents, their country, and particularly themselves to develop a sound academic background.
The Quaid advised them to be on their watch. They should not let themselves be misled by rumours or disinformation campaign by the enemies of the state. The Quaid reminded them that there was a common fault with the students that they believed there was nothing which they did not know already. As a result, the students often did not pay heed to the advice by their elders. It was a negative attitude not to learn from the experience of the old people as it would do them more harm than to anyone else. Once they grew old, they would gain wisdom and experience to realise their mistake in not following their elders’ advice. But it would have been too late by that time. They would already have paid a big price for it.
The Quaid also warned against provincialism. Pakistan was created to play a prominent role in building the future of the whole Islamic world. As such they should often be prepared to sacrifice even their national interests for this purpose.
Finally the Quaid stressed the need for technical and commercial education. Freedom had created many new opportunities. They did not need to depend on a job in an office as their sole future. Their services were needed in many other fields now. They could become doctors, engineers, bankers and executive officers in commercial concerns. Their future would be brighter there than as a clerk. He also stressed the need for observing discipline in life.
How Many People "In 200,000 years the Homo Sapiens multiplied to 2,500,000,000. It will take thirty more years to add another 2,000,000,000", says Ritchie Calder. What has he said about the rapid growth of world population and the measures to check it?
World population is rapidly increasing. Measures to check this growth are not likely to succeed. According to the UN's estimates, the world population will reach the figure of 7,000 millions by the end of this century. In this way, it has become one of the greatest problems. The major factor in the growth of population is the advance made in the field of medical science. Many tropical diseases which were fatal in the past are now easily cured by cheap and effective drugs. As a result many babies who died before youth now survive, marry and procreate. Then, the average age has been considerably increased in the developed countries. So the decrease in mortality rate in advanced nations and high birth rate in backward countries are the major factors responsible for increase in the world population.
On the other hand, the science of agricultural has not made as much progress as the science of medicine. It is possible to save many people from diseases but it is not possible in the same degree to get an equal increase in the yield from forms. The result is that millions of people face the problem of starvation. Then closely connected with it is the problem of great disparity between the rich and poor nations. World resources can provide for the whole population. But there is acute scarcity in the backward countries.
At the beginning of 20th century, the developed countries contained one third of the world's population. But by the end of this century this ratio might go down to one fifth. Birth control is more effective in these countries. But growth of population in poor nations is increasing much faster. This means that the ratio of rich and poor will grow even worse. It is not possible for poor countries to increase their produce. These nations don't possess the means to purchase modern machinery, better seeds, or fertilisers. They cannot acquire the necessary skill for operating this machinery so quickly, either.
Another problem is that the population is not evenly distributed. The rich countries have much less population while the backward countries, on the other hand, have to support much larger population. In this already grim situation, the rapid growth of population has become a great threat to the world. It can cause upheavals in world politics. No doubt that the present resources of the earth can provide for 16,000 millions or even more. There are the vegetable resources of the sea which have been ignored and it is also possible to breed fish for food. Moreover, those regions which were previously not considered suitable for growing crops can be now used for certain staples. But to meet this problem, the world needs a far greater degree of co-operation and technical skill. It also requires a greater sense of responsibility. We need to be much more rational and co-operative than ever before. But man has a limit and it is very difficult to observe the kind of restraint that is required. Unfortunate there is not much co-operation in the world, either. It means that we are drawing closer to a mass destruction when the world resources would become insufficient to support such a large population. That is why the UN’s experts demand research in effective birth control. If we failed to appreciate the seriousness of the problem, we might be paving the way for a big disaster which would not be much different from a mass suicide.
Comprehension Questions
How Many People
"In the life time of the younger politicians of today ...” (Page 210)....."can modify the social, political upheavals inherent in this demographic revolution." (Page 211)
Questions with answers
1. What is meant by demographic revolution?
Demography means the study of the characteristics of human population and population segments. By this phrase the writer is referring to sudden changes that the rise of population in poorer countries can cause in world politics. According to the writer, such a revolution has got nothing to do with political ideology or religion. These changes will be caused only by the rising population in the under-developed countries and could prove extremely disastrous for world peace.
2. Name two factors responsible for the increase in the rate of population growth.
According to the writer of this passage, one of the biggest factors is decrease in mortality rate. This, in turn, has become possible because cheap life saving drugs are now easily available for many tropical diseases. Formerly these diseases were fatal and caused heavy tolls of deaths in Asia and Africa.. The other factor is that in developed countries the average age has been almost doubled. As such people now live for much longer than in the past.
3. Why, according to the author, will the gap between the rich and poor countries go on widening?
The one reason is that the population of poor countries is increasing more rapidly than the developed ones. The other reason is that the poor countries do not have means to increase their yield from farms. They need more funds to buy high quality seeds, fertilisers and farm machinery but with their poor resources and ever increasing burden on economy, they can not afford to spend money on such items. Besides, they can not introduce modern farming methods due to the lack of skill in operating farm machinery on a large scale.
4. How will the increase in population affect the pattern of world politics?
The number of people will increase in poor countries more rapidly than in richer ones. This will cause a general discontent and complaint against the unequal distribution of resources. And whenever there is discontent, it always breeds the germs of insecurity which in turn make it necessary to have recourse to drastic measures on the part of one side or the other.
5. What has the author said about the economic development of the Third World countries?
The writer thinks that the west has to provide much more technical and financial assistance to the backward countries than ever undertaken before. This is the only way to avoid disasters in the near future.
Comprehension Questions
How Many People
“The population quandary is obvious.” (Page 211) …….. “There is no agricultural equivalent to malaria control .... “ (Page 212)
Questions with answers
6. State the factors that are responsible for increase in the world population?
According to the writer of this passage, one of the biggest factors is decrease in mortality rate. This, in turn, has become possible because cheap life saving drugs are now easily available for many tropical diseases. Formerly these diseases were fatal and caused heavy tolls of deaths in Asia and Africa.. The other factor is that in developed countries the average age has been almost doubled. As such people now live for much longer than in the past.
7. How is the situation in under-developed countries different from that in the developed ones?
The rate of population growth is much greater in the under-developed countries than in the prosperous and developed ones. On the other hand, their resources are comparatively much scanty than those of the highly advanced countries.
8. Describe the nature of the scientific research for human well-being recommended by UN experts.
The United Nation's experts suggest that proper research should be undertaken for controlling the birth rate. We need such measures which can check the drastic growth of population and at the same time are suitable for use on a larger scale by the ordinary people.
9. What is the duty of developed countries?
The writer thinks that the west has to provide much more technical and financial assistance to the backward countries than ever undertaken before. This is the only way to avoid disasters in the near future.
10. What is genocide? What is "selective genocide."
Genocide means killing a whole race. If cheap and effective life saving drugs are denied to the poor nations, it would amount to selective genocide.
Comprehension Questions
How Many People
" Unfortunately the science of agricultural has not made the same advances ...” (Page 212).....".. sufficiently quickly can they acquire the know how." (Page 212)
Questions with answers
11. Why is food production not keeping pace with the growth of world population?
The world population is increasing more rapidly than the means of food production. In fact, the science of medicine has made enormous progress and now many fatal diseases are easily and cheaply curable. A similar advance has not been made by the science of agriculture. As such more people are rescued from death now but the means to provide them with a decent living have not been found as yet.
12. What was the food situation like in 1958?
As compared to the previous years, there was a decline in food production in 1958. However, it was still more than sufficient to feed the entire world population. It was a different matter that still millions in the poor countries starved for food.
13. The writer says that the food production in the world is sufficient to feed the entire world population. Why, then, are millions of the human beings underfed and dying of hunger every year?
The problem is that some countries have more than enough for their needs while most of them have far little. It is true the food was and is available on the global level but obviously the rich and prosperous countries with comparatively much less population always have several-times more than the poor nations of the world. The result is that millions of human being remain underfed and starve while the richer nations are bathing in prosperity and plenty.
14. Why is food production unsatisfactory and inadequate in the third-world countries?
Population in these countries is increasing at a much faster rate than their food resources. The food production, no doubt, can be increased but for this purpose they need to use better quality seeds and fertilisers. Moreover they need to introduce machine production but all this requires financial resources which these nations cannot provide in view of large pressure of population on their economy.
15. Is medical science making satisfactory progress in curing diseases?
In the field of medicine, world community has made much more progress. We have now cures for many widespread diseases which were formerly considered fatal. In many cases the drugs are much cheaper and are available all over the world. It is true that in case of some diseases we are not so lucky but on the whole the situation is quite satisfactory and even encouraging.
How Many People
Synopsis:
By 1960, man had multiplied to 2,500 millions. It was estimated (in 1960) that by 1990 there would be an increase of 2,000 millions and by the year 2000, the human population might reach six or seven thousand millions. This increase will also upset the ratio between the poor and rich nations and might result in untold upheavals. The major cause for this rise in population is discovery of cheap medicines for various tropical diseases. This factor has increased the average age besides reducing the death rate almost dramatically.
The present resources are enough for the entire world but richer nations have small population while poorer countries have a much larger population. The earth resources, if fully utilised, might even provide for over 16,000 millions but for this we need social organisation and specialisation of human activities. However, there seem little prospects of that at present. As such, we will undo ourselves unless we check this disastrous growth before it is too late.
Main Points
1. The world population reached the figure of 2,500 millions in 200,000 years. But by the year 2,000 it will have reached to six or seven thousand million. It means that since 1960, the population will have increased twice or even thrice.
2. According to a cautious estimate by UN experts, each man would have only standing room (i.e., one square metre space) after 600 years.
3. Even the immediate prospects are quite as much alarming. More people will survive due to an effective disease control.
4. To accommodate such a large number of people, a far greater degree of cooperation and social organisation will be needed of which there seem little prospects.
5. The estimates for 1980 had to be revised by one thousand millions in view of the real figures for China being 600 millions instead of 463 millions as were previously guessed.
6. The increase in population is much greater in poorer countries and by the end of 20th century the Europeans, which were one third at the beginning of this century, will be one fifth of the Asians.
7. There seem no prospects of decrease in population in near future. In countries of low fertility, no further decrease seems possible and birth control in others can not bring any great change.
8. The distribution of resources is even graver as the countries with larger population have much smaller share of food. No amount of cooperation is likely to prevent the social and political upheavals that can be caused by this situation.
9. On the one hand, the death rate has declined, while on the other hand, the average age has been almost doubled. It is neither possible nor ethical to disallow the cheap medicines to the poor countries and as such their population will keep increasing.
10. The science of agricultural has not made the same progress as medical science and as such it is becoming more and more difficult to feed the world population.
11. In 1958 the global food production decreased for the first time. Yet it was more than enough for the entire world. However, the problem is caused by the fact that countries with larger population have much less food than what they need.
12. The poor countries cannot afford fertilisers, better seeds or farm machinery which can increase yield from fields. It will also be difficult for them to learn operating these modern tools very quickly.
13. Science has made it possible to grow crops in previously impossible regions and climates. The vegetable resources of the sea can also be utilised. With these the earth could sustain even more than 16,000 millions.
14. However, this requires specialisation of human activities and a much greater degree of social organisation. Moreover it needs discipline and restraint on the part of each individual. But all this does not seem possible to attain.
15. Unless we check this growth of population we would be committing suicide like lemmings (rats).
Comprehension Questions
1. Is it really possible that each man will have only standing place after 600 years? Why?(Page 208)
2. Why do the minimum figures of the UN’s experts seem irreversible? (Page 209)
3. “More disturbing than the projected figure of a population mount to 6,000 or 7,000 million by the turn of the century is the fact that it will probably be attained that soon.” Explain.
4. Why does the estimates (for 1980) of the UN Bureau of Social affairs do not agree with its previous calculations of 1954? (Page 209-10)
5. What has the writer said with regards to birth control in India, China, Japan and Latin America?
6. How is the situation in under-developed countries different from that in developed ones? What will be its consequences and what measures are needed to prevent its inherent social upheavals? (Page 211)
7. State the factors responsible for increase in the world population.
8. Describe the nature of scientific research for human well-being recommended by UN’s experts.
9. Why is food production not keeping pace with the growth of world population? (Page 212)
10. What was the food situation like in 1958?
11. The writer says that the food production in the world is sufficient to feed the entire population of the world. Why, then, are millions of human-beings underfed and dying of hunger every year?
12. Is medical science making satisfactory progress in curing diseases?
13. Why can’t the food production be increased in the third world countries? (Why is food production unsatisfactory and inadequate in these countries?)
14. “The limits of numerical survival do not depend on technological progress alone.” Why? (Page 213)
15. How can the food production be increased to a level to sustain more than 16,000 million people?
16. “This would be a Belshazzar’s feast at which we would have ignored the plain writing on the wall.” Explain what does the writer mean by it?
17. What does the writer mean when he says that it is like sharing the death wish of lemmings?
Education for Tomorrow "A great deal of debate about equality has now become out of date since it is based on three assumptions" This sentence has been taken from "Education for Tomorrow". What are Vaizey’s assumptions? What are his views on education?
In modern countries, most of the children are not given education according to their needs and aptitudes. This seems to Vaizey a violation of children’s rights. He believes that each and every child is entitled to the best possible education according to the principles of equal opportunities. He notices with concern how in many countries a selection is made at a very early stage of life and accordingly some children are sent to the best schools and courses while the rest are provided with somewhat inferior facilities of education. Yet it is claimed that these societies are based on the concept of equal opportunities for all.
In order to justify such a gross injustice, it is often suggested that selections are made on the basis of merit. Sometimes, the later achievements of both types of students are compared to prove that such a choice was right. In the writer’s opinion, these statements are merely automatic in nature and prove nothing. It is obvious that those children who are given best chances in life will naturally perform better as compared to those who are neglected and deprived of their basic right. In fact, the latter deserve more attention as being socially deprived they cannot express themselves as well as the former.
The writer reminds his reader that scholarships were created in the past just because it was believed that boys and girls from working classes could perform equally well if they were provided places. It is now generally believed that a few scholarships are not sufficient for the large number of intelligent students. Such scholarships are providing places for only top five per cent of the intelligence distribution among the poor classes. The result is that a great deal of talent of the highest level is lost every year due the prevailing unjust systems of education.
It might be true that children differ in inherited ability, yet a great deal of intelligence is acquired than inherited. Many experts believe that intelligence does not remain a fixed quantity. It increases over the years. Naturally it is the basic right of every child to be given the best education to develop their abilities. A selection at an early age results in sheer injustice.
Three reasons were given in favour of selection in the past. Firstly, it was assumed that educational resources would always remain scarce. Hence selection was thought necessary to avoid wastage. The second reason was that it was formerly supposed that majority of the people didn't need best education. They would be doing routine and ordinary jobs. Only leaders would need the best education. Thirdly, it was assumed that intelligence was a fixed quantity and it could be measured at quite an early age.
None of these reasons are, however, valid any more. The modern society has reached a greater degree of prosperity. Every child can now be given the best education. Similarly the demands of modern times are much greater. It is mostly a world changing very rapidly. The modern man faces great strains. Unless he is highly educated, he cannot modify his attitude. The idea of fixed ability is also challenged now. It has been proved that the intelligence of a child can be greatly increased through various means. It is also obvious now that tests at an early age cannot help determine the IQ of young boys and girls. If a decision is made on the basis of their intelligence at an early age it would only result in injustice towards many children.
In the light of these facts it has become necessary to provide every child the best possible education. The society can achieve this purpose by providing better living conditions for its children.
Comprehension Questions
Education for Tomorrow
"One of the great drives towards improvement in education has always come from the passionate concern.” (Page 214) ... ".. to that especially provided for middle class children by their parents" (Page 215)
Questions with answers
1. Are all children treated equally and given the education best suited to them?
According to the writer, some students are given the best possible education while the rest are provided with comparatively inferior type of education. It appears from the passage that even in developed countries all children are not treated equally.
2. What was the old interpretation of “Equality of Opportunity”?
The old definition seemed to be that every person was entitled to such chances in life for which his level of ability and intelligence qualified him. The same principal applied to the children’s rights of education. Accordingly some of them were to be provided with the best possible education. The majority of others, being less intelligent, had to content themselves with the next to best education.
3. In what way is the new interpretation of “Equality of Opportunity” different from the old interpretation?
The new definition provides for equal chances of acquiring best possible education to each and every child according to his aptitude and needs. It means that instead of depending on the level of their ability at the time of selection, the children should be given chances to acquire intelligence. As such it is the duty of the society that poor and culturally more deprived children are given more attention.
4. What does the writer mean by village Hampdens?
Thomas Gray, a nineteenth century poet, in his “Elegy on a Country Churchyard’ has lamented the fate of people of Hampden. He says that we should not look down upon their graves with scorn if there is no tombstone pointing out their achievements in life. There might have been judges, statesmen, scientists and other competent people among them but life gave them no chance of showing their talents. The writer by using the term Hampdens is referring to children from among working classes who could not display their talents just because they did not have the chance to acquire proper education.
5. What is wrong with the present system of education and how does the author (John Vaizey) propose to make it more useful and egalitarian?
The present system of education is unjust. It does not provide equal chances of education to those who are culturally deprived. The writer wants to the society to realise its responsibility towards such children. The society should make efforts to raise the standard of living of every person so that children should have best environment for acquiring education.
Style and Purpose 1 “Part of the intricacy of co-ordination in using language lies in the different constraints operating in speech and writing.” This line has been taken from "Style and Purpose". Describe in your words all that Quirk says about the three basic principles to be observed in all uses of language.
English is quite rich in the variety of it styles. This fact poses a problem. Each situation demands one and only one particular style. No other style will do. We must, therefore, see that our style is suitable for our purpose and that we are using the same throughout. Mixing of various styles will result in ruin. Then we must observe that the words that we use belong to the same style. This principle also applies in the use of word collocations and conventions of grammar. If we mix conventions that in fact belong to separate styles, our language will give the impression of laziness. This fact is obvious from the fact that there are different conventions for speech and writing. But these are not the only divisions and many other classes are possible on the basis of subject matter, purpose and degree of intimation. In case of all these we have to observe the conventions of actual usage with regards to suitability of words, their collocations and grammar in each style.
Some great writers may seem to us as being careless about conventions of collocation. It cannot become an excuse for us to ignore such conventions, however. The fact is that we admire such writers for their greatness and not on account of their carelessness about the conventions of language. We rather excuse their mistakes because they are otherwise great. Then conventions serve as a yardstick, as a standard against which to judge originality. A collocation appeals to us as original just because of a deviation from normal usage. It depends for its effect on the awareness of conventional arrangement. Unless we know the norm, we cannot appreciate originality of a collocation.
The fact is that when we come across a specimen of originality, it is appreciated just because we know exactly what the normal collocation is. ‘Bitter sweet’ as the title of Noel Coward’s play surprises us due to the fact that normally these two words are mutually exclusive and are not collocated in ordinary speech or writing. At least it must be obvious that for a beginner it is imperative to master the conventional way first before he can think of practising originality.
So the problem of choosing a suitable style is very important. Letters serve as the best example. We can easily see that body and form varies from one type of letter to another. The decision about the opening and end of a letter depends on the degree of intimacy. Then the body of the letter also corresponds to the style we are using. In this way, the style of our letter varies from close intimacy to cold formality. A mixture of different styles will just ruin the letter. We, therefore, need to observe great care. In the same way, we must be careful in our use of English for all other purposes. It is important that we know one style from the other and are able to use it consistently in its proper context.
2. Reproduce what Quirk has to say about vagueness and use of clichés in his essay "The Use of English".
Words are not good or bad in themselves. Their character is decided by the context in which they are used. When a word is used in an improper style, it gives the impression of bad English. Certain situations require a precise expression. A thoroughly expected collocation simply fails in such cases to convey precise meanings. It can be termed clichés in such contexts and the result is often bad English.
The use of unnecessary words is also a mark of bad English. No purpose is served by mere repetition of different words for the same idea. The readers rather begin to think that the writer is hiding his ignorance. We feel that the writer is trying to deceive us by using bombastic words. So the expression fails in its aim.
A vague expression is not necessarily bad. It may be unintentional in some situations and then it may give a wrong impression. However, there are times when it is far more useful to employ a vague style. Examples can be quoted from some of the best poetry and novels. Great literature often owes its appeal to vagueness. In such a case, the vagueness is conscious and deliberate. Even in normal conversation we make use of it. We take pains to be vague about unpleasant facts. In these situations, vagueness is not only useful but often a difficult art to acquire. An advertiser uses the same method though for selfish reasons. We need to know what the advertiser is after so that we can protect ourselves from being misled.
There is another thing which we must realise. Facts do not speak for themselves. The way they are described makes a great deal of difference. A viewpoint about facts is also quite important, therefore. This fact can be easily noticed if we study a law-suit. Here, the same facts are made to stand for different things. If we want to cultivate the habit of objective thinking we must try to understand the viewpoint of others about facts. On the other hand, if we are not trained enough to judge facts for ourselves, we can be easily deceived.
Comprehension Questions
Style and Purpose
"Part of the intricacy of co-ordination in using language lies in different constraints operating in speech and writing.” (Page 220) ...... ".... will tend to be different (and consistently so) in the two types of letters" (Page 221)
Questions with answers
1. What must a writer do as a preliminary step before he even thinks of attempting to write in an original or unconventional style?
It is difficult to appreciate originality of style without first knowing the actual or normal usage of language. So it is very important for a writer to master the conventional style first. He must understand that he has to choose out of several available styles the one that is most appropriate for his purpose. Then he must observe the conventions of word collocations and grammar that go with that style.
2. What is unusual about the title of Novel Coward’s play “Bitter Sweet”?
In this example, the phrase ‘bitter sweet’ contains two words which are normally not collocated together. It, therefore, comes as a surprise and we are delighted with the novelty of the idea that bitterness can be sweet. In other words, our enjoyment of the originality of the idea depends on our knowledge of what is the normal collocation.
3. Why is it important to begin and end a letter in the usual or conventional manner?
The beginning and end of letters are fixed by the actual usage within a community. If somebody does not observe the proper forms, most people have a very poor opinion of him. It indicates that the writer is either a stranger to the conventions of that particular social group or, at the least, a rash and careless person who has no respect for the norms of the society.
Moreover, language communicates only as long as the accepted conventions are observed. In case these conventions are ignored the statement fails to put across the right idea.
4. Show that the styles of letter written to different persons and for different purposes must be different?
Letters can be written for various purposes and to different persons with whom we might have a varying degree of intimacy. Accordingly, our style can vary between extreme formality and deep affection. Then in some situations we are not writing to the person but the position or office that he holds. In such a case our style must be totally impersonal to be objective and precise.
5. Explain the words paradoxical, collocation, hoary witticism.
Here the word ‘paradoxical’ has been used in the meaning of absurd or unreasonable. Collocation is arrangement of words. Hoary is used in the sense of grey with age and as such it refers to old age or a very long time. Witticism means ‘humour and so the phrase means humour that has been in use for a very long time.